H;' JOHNSTON 

AND  OTHERS 


SANTA 


•27*?.$ 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


PROFESSIONAL  TREATMENTS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATIVE,  SUPERVISORY, 
AND   SPECIFICALLY   PEDAGOGICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   SECOND- 
ARY  EDUCATION,  WITH   SPECIAL  REFERENCE 
TO  AMERICAN   CONDITIONS 


EDITED  BY 
CHARLES  HUGHES   JOHNSTON,  PH.D.  (HARVARD) 

DEAN   OF  THE   SCHOOL  OF   EDUCATION   OF   THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF   KANSAS 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 

ATLANTA  SAN   FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 
C 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  American  high  school  is  our  most  interesting 
educational  institution,  more  democratic  than  the  college 
and  more  selective  than  the  elementary  school.  Man- 
hood and  womanhood  are  visibly  budding.  This  fullness 
of  life  bewilders  both  the  teachers  and  the  students.  Ex- 
travagant administrative  and  pedagogical  wastes  and 
misdirections  cannot,  however,  prevent  this  fertile  soil 
from  producing  educational  fruitage.  The  high  school 
as  an  institution  enjoys,  despite  itself,  a  fair  measure  of 
success.  With  a  sort  of  blind  acceptance  of  mediaeval 
formulae  it  has  stubbornly  administered  the  same  dose 
to  all  its  students  for  a  long  time.  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics  formerly  killed  or  cured  all.  More  recently 
the  "mathematics  and  any  foreign  language"  require- 
ment, "the  trunk  of  the  curriculum,"  has  constituted  a 
modern  "unescapable  minimum."  More  have  braved 
this  treatment,  and  fewer  have  been  killed.  The  scien- 
tific basis  for  this  common  treatment  for  all  has  of  late 
been  called  into  question.  Is  a  foreign  language,  or  is 
mathematics,  or  is  any  single  subject,  in  itself  necessary 
for  all  types  of  persons  and  all  varieties  of  purposes  ?  The 
school's  process  of  elimination  has  been  a  rule-of-thumb 
ministration.  It  should  be  based  upon  intelligent  diag- 
nosis and  should  represent  more  varied  forms  of  treat- 
ment. 

There  is  no  such  thing  a§  a  high  school  pedagogy.  It 
is  time  all  students  of  secondary  education  should  recog- 
nize that  we  must  rather  speak  of  high  school  pedagogies. 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

There  is  already  a  fair  pedagogy  of  language,  something 
of  a  distinctive  mathematical  method,  and,  since  Spencer, 
some  think,  a  science  procedure.  Yet  new  subjects  and 
even  new  functions  for  old  subjects  call  for  new  peda- 
gogies. Doubtless  under  modern  high  school  conditions 
all  our  pedagogies  must  be  remojielled.  This  is  particu- 
larly evident  in  the  cases  of  history,  physics,  English, 
biology,  high  school  music,  and  all  the  so-called  incom- 
ing subjects.  Industrial  education  or  agricultural  educa 
tion,  for  example,  of  a  genuinely  vocational  character 
will  bring  into  existence  a  pedagogy  of  school  practice 
totally  different  from  traditional  text-bookish  routine. 
So  may  modern  physics  and  industrial  chemistry,  and  so 
even  may  English.  We  have  not  discovered,  again,  the 
school  avenue  of  approach  to  civic,  or  moral,  or  social 
enlightenment,  nor  are  we  likely  to  do  so  with  traditional 
pedagogy. 

This  book  attempts  to  do  some  pioneering  in  this 
promising  experimental  field.  The  first  five  chapters 
seek  to  suggest  a  characteristic  setting  for  a  broader  and 
more  variable  institutional  functioning,  leaving  a  wide- 
open  development  possible.  The  following  chapters 
represent  conscious  attempts  to  differentiate  the  distin- 
guishable elements  and  pedagogical  features  one  en- 
counters in  adapting  to  boys  and  girls  of  high  school 
age  the  educational  possibilities' inherent  in  our  twen- 
tieth century  programme  of  studies.  All  the  authors 
have  assumed  this  multiplicity  of  pedagogies.  The  editor 
does  not,  in  every  case,  agree  with  the  convictions  ex- 
pressed, nor  with  the  points  chosen  for  greatest  emphasis, 
nor  can  he  intelligently  disagree  in  many  cases.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  reader  may  find  himself  in  the  same 
dilemma  frequently.  Our  urgent  problem  has  been  to 


INTRODUCTION  yii 

present  squarely  and  to  define  as  concisely  as  possible 
genuine  issues,  and  to  collate  educational  theories  of  values 
viewed  from  intimacy  of  acquaintance  with  the  furtlier 
boundaries  of  the  subject-matter  as  well  as  with  desirable 
working  high  school  conditions. 

We  tend  to  put  our  educational  theory  into  text-books 
on  educational  psychology,  principles  of  education, 
philosophy  of  education,  general  pedagogy,  or  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  and  casually  to  refer  to  the 
differentiated  disciplines  within  courses  of  study  them- 
selves. This  book  changes  the  emphasis  and  adopts 
something  of  the  English  custom  or  the  German  custom 
of  reading  whatever  of  scientific  or  established  pedagogy 
we  have  definitely  and  specifically  into  the  instruction 
matter  we  must  in  any  case  dispense.  These  treatments 
may  in  a  sense  be  viewed  as  attempts  at  distinctions 
and  co-ordinations  of  specific  disciplines,  rather  than  as 
moulds  fashioned  beforehand  for  a  formal  general  dis- 
cipline, a  predetermined  type  of  educational  psychology, 
or  as  deductions  from  some  favorite  but  remotely  related 
philosophical  system. 

High  school  didactics  offers  then  a  promising  field  for 
investigation.  Every  prospective  and  actual  teacher  and 
every  school  administrator  should  have  a  conception  of 
certain  distinguishing  functions  of  whatever  subject- 
matter  our  high  school  programmes  of  study  embrace, 
without  as  well  as  within  the  range  of  a  particular  branch 
of  study.  This  book  represents  a  co-operative  attempt 
to  put  on  record  in  a  single  usable  volume  an  authoritative 
consensus  of  scholarly  conviction  as  to  what  high  school 
instruction  may  accomplish.  The  American  high  school 
is  a  socializing  agency  of  our  democracy  also,  and  has 
still  other  aims  in  addition  to  the  instructional  one,  which 


riii  INTRODUCTION 

must  be  treated  in  a  subsequent  volume.  But  it  will 
always  be  a  distinguishing  function  of  an  educational 
institution  of  secondary  grade  to  realize  itself  chiefly 
through  the  spirit  and  matter  of  what  it  transmits  sys- 
tematically. The  greatest  obstacle  to  effective  high 
school  teaching  is  that  the  teachers  teach  mathematics 
with  no  clear  notion  why,  and  Latin  or  history  or  science, 
assuming  likewise  that  in  some  mysterious  way  a  result — 
not  specified — will  come  about  of  itself. 

This  book  attempts  to  treat  from  every  angle  possible 
the  best  approaches,  theoretical  and  practical,  to  the 
genuine  problems  of  high  school  programmes  of  study 
and  curriculums,  and  of  all  the  special  courses  of  study 
which  a  high  school  may  hope  to  administer  and  teach. 

The  contributors  of  the  first  five  and  the  last  chapters 
have  had  a  free  field  within  the  limitations  of  their  sub- 
ject. Beginning  with  Chapter  VI  the  writers  have  all 
consciously  followed  a  common  scheme  of  treatment. 
The  following  topics  where  feasible  have  been  in  some 
way  incorporated  in  the  separate  discussions,  and  should 
be  kept  in  mind  by  the  critical  reader  as  a  sort  of  key  to 
the  plan  of  the  book,  as  well  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
chapters. 

1.  A  simple  statement  of  the  broader  aspects  of  this 
distinctive  field  of  education,  indicating  the  philosophi- 
cal and  logical  background  in  such  a  way  as  to  broaden 
the  reader's  comprehension  of  the  deeper  educational 
significance  of  the  subject. 

2.  A  specific  adjustment  of  the  moral,  aesthetic,  social, 
and  practical  disciplines  to  be  reasonably  expected  from  a 
study  of  this  subject. 

3.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  actual  history  of  the  subject 
in  the  school  curriculum. 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

4.  The  gradual  change  and  improvement  in  the  text- 
book presentations  of  the  subject. 

5.  The  gradual  improvements  in  other  apparatus  than 
text-books,  adopted  for  use  in  teaching  it. 

6.  The  gradual  change  in  the  conception  of  its  edu- 
cational value. 

7.  The  degree  and  nature  of  correlation  with  other 
subjects,  particularly  since  the  report  of  the  Committee 
of  Ten  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

8.  The  growing  refinement  of  methods  for  presenting 
the  subject. 

9.  The  grade  preparation  to  be  presupposed  at  pres- 
ent. 

10.  Its  present  status  and  the  grounds  for  it  as  seen 
from  a  comparison  of  typical  high  school  curriculums. 
The  future  possible  developments  and  the  grounds  for 
this  (growing,  steady,  or  losing  position?). 

11.  The  social,  psychological,  and  practical  obstacles 
to  its  attaining  its  ideal  educational  aim. 

12.  The  necessary,  and  also  the  more  ideal  prepara- 
tion, academic  and  professional,  called  for  in  the  teacher. 

13.  Appended  bibliography,  (a)  additional  references 
to  books  and  special  monographs  dealing  with  the  topics 
incorporated  in  the  discussion,  (6)  a  suggested  list  of 
books  desirable  for  reference  for  high  school  libraries. 

The  contributors  are  men  invited  to  co-operate  in  this 
undertaking  because  of  their  combined  interest  in  the 
high  school  point  of  view  and  in  the  development  of  the 
subject-matter  of  their  discussions.  All  writers  have 
constantly  kept  in  mind  the  original  purpose  of  the  book, 
that  the  life  purposes  of  high  school  students  constitute 
the  ultimate  objects  of  reference — not  college  admission 


x  INTRODUCTION 

standards,  if  these  seem  seriously  to  conflict  with  the 
broader  aim.  The  work  is  intended  primarily  to  appeal 
to  all  serious  students  of  our  modern  high  school,  includ- 
ing State,  county,  and  city  superintendents,  high  school 
principals  of  all  grades,  and  high  school  teachers  in  ser- 
vice. It  may  serve  as  a  text  in  secondary  education  for 
prospective  teachers  in  schools  of  education,  depart- 
ments of  education,  and  normal  schools. 

The  comprehensive  plan  of  the  undertaking  makes 
of  the  volume  something  totally  different  from  the  com- 
mon one-man  solution  of  all  these  problems.  No  author 
could  have  written  any  other  than  his  own  chapter,  yet 
all  authors  accepted  the  conditions  of  uniformity  in 
treatment,  so  that  there  is  that  measure  of  unity  which 
expert  knowledge  and  serious  co-operation  will  allow. 
No  reader  should  expect  final  solutions  of  these  prob- 
lems. Such  a  unity  for  our  book's  conclusions  would 
have  been  spurious.  Instead  the  reader  may  here  find 
honest  and  well-known  scholars  struggling  to  make  plain 
and  simple  the  reasons  why  we  do  or  should  not  do  these 
simple  teaching  operations  which,  without  such  articulate 
conviction,  will  deaden  the  greater  part  of  our  profes- 
sional service. 

The  editor  has  found  easily  a  place  for  instruction  of 
classes  in  education  in  the  subject-matter  of  this  volume. 
The  plan  has  evolved  from  class-room  experience.  Edu- 
cation departments,  teachers'  colleges,  and  many  normal 
schools  offer  courses  in  "secondary  education,"  "the 
American  high  school,"  "high  school  problems,"  "his- 
tory and  principles  of  secondary  education,"  or  "the 
high  school  course  of  study."  In  such  courses  as  these 
the  doctrine  described  above  of  specialized  pedagogies 
applies.  The  contents  of  this  type  of  course  well  illus- 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

trate  the  truth  that  college  courses  also  call  for  a  variety 
of  pedagogies.  From  the  editor's  experience  with  stu- 
dents of  this  subject  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  for  three 
years  and  three  summer  terms  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan with  a  large  proportion  of  practical  experienced 
school  administrators  in  the  classes,  and  from  a  similar 
experience  at  the  University  of  Kansas,  the  following 
method  of  treatment  is  suggested  where  the  volume  is 
adopted  as  a  text.  Limit  the  class  to  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  members.  Conduct  somewhat  as  a  seminary.  Spend 
the  first  third  of  the  term  in  class  discussions  of  the 
problems  of  the  first  five  chapters.  Insist  upon  a  good 
bit  of  reference  work,  as  references  are  abundant  and 
easily  accessible.  Emphasize  the  applicability  and  de- 
sirability of  adoption  of  the  principles  advocated  to  the 
particular  State  or  States  represented  by  the  members 
of  the  class.  Then  assign,  by  student's  choice  where 
possible,  the  topics  of  the  succeeding  chapters.  Have 
the  students  in  the  preparation  of  their  individual  reports 
follow  pretty  closely,  but  in  no  particular  order,  the 
topics  suggested  in  this  introduction.  Allow  each  stu- 
dent one-half  the  hour  of  a  class  meeting  to  make  his 
report,  and  then  conduct  the  class  discussion  in  an  at- 
tempt to  compare  the  book  treatment  with  the  independ- 
ent student's  report  upon  the  topic.  Many  students  will 
have  had  some  experience;  many  will  have  had  a  teach- 
ers' course  in  some  subject,  and  all  will  have  some  pre- 
ferred subject  which  they  expect  to  teach.  There  is 
small  likelihood  that  root  questions,  new  developments, 
and  a  wide  outlook  on  their  professional  participation  in 
educational  service  will  be  overlooked.  Throughout  one 
ideal  of  the  course  should  be  to  have  prospective  high 
school  teachers  realize  the  necessity  that  they  understand 


jrii  INTRODUCTION 

those  high  school  courses  of  study  which  differ  radically 
in  function  from  their  own. 

In  the  near  future  also  we  may  expect  that  these  ques- 
tions will  occupy  some  of  the  time  of  our  high  school 
faculty  meetings.  High  school  principals  will  eventually 
actually  administer  and  supervise  in  clear  and  mutual 
co-operation  with  their  faculties  these  near  problems  of 
the  actual  instruction  itself  of  the  school.  Some  modifi- 
cation of  the  plan  for  class  use  suggested  above  will  be 
found  adaptable  to  these  meetings  when  they  become 
real  meetings  of  educators. 

There  has  been  a  concerted  and  thorough-going  attempt 
by  the  authors  to  make  the  bibliography  feature  of  the 
book  up-to-date,  reliable,  and  useful.  High  school  prin- 
cipals, those  directing  the  purchase  of  books  for  high 
school  libraries,  those  directing  reading  circles,  and  par- 
ticularly those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  questions  raised 
by  the  different  topics  as  treated,  are  urged  to  consult 
the  references  chapter  by  chapter.  To  insure  the  use- 
fulness of  these  select  and  authorized  lists  of  books  and 
monographs,  prices  and  publishers  are  in  most  cases 
given. 

The  book  is  dedicated  to  the  high  school  teachers  and 
principals  of  the  country  in  whose  awakening  and  en- 
couragement it  hopes  to  play  some  part. 

CHARLES  HUGHES  JOHNSTON,  Editor. 

UHIVKRSITY  OF  KANSAS. 


CONTENTS 

MM 

INTRODUCTION v 

CHAPTER  I — CURRENT  DEMANDS  UPON  THE  PRO- 
GRAMME OF  STUDIES 3 

BY  CHARLES  HUGHES  JOHNSTON,  PH.D.  (Harvard),  Dean  of  the 
School  of  Education,  University  of  Kansas. 

i.  A  modern  problem.  2.  Co-operative  relationship  of  school 
and  college.  3.  Multiplying  kinds  of  education  and  their  so- 
cial significance.  4.  The  public  interest  in  courses  of  study. 
5.  Leading  issues  that  are  eventuating.  6.  Typical  modern  crit- 
icism. 7.  Wholesale  curriculum  experimentation.  8.  Tech- 
nical curriculum  problems.  9.  A  basis  for  reconstruction. 
10.  The  future  of  the  American  high  school. 

CHAPTER    II  —  THE    DISCIPLINARY     BASIS     OF 

COURSES  OF  STUDY 31 

BY  CHARLES  HUGHES  JOHNSTON. 

i.  Disciplinary  contrasted  with  utilitarian  basis.  2.  A 
broader  conception  of  educational  discipline.  3.  Conflicting 
conceptions.  4.  Sidis  and  James  vs.  Babbitt.  5.  The  theory 
of  formal  discipline.  6.  Its  historical  status.  7.  Its  scien- 
tific status.  8.  The  teacher's  concern  with  the  theory. 

CHAPTER  III — HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICU- 

LUMS  SINCE   THE   RENAISSANCE         ....       45 

BY  G.  L.  JACKSON,  PH.D.  (Columbia),  Assistant  Professor  of 
the  History  of  Education,  University  of  Michigan. 

i.  Aim  of  chapter.  2.  Greek  education.  3.  Roman  educa- 
tion. 4.  Mediaeval  education.  5.  The  Renaissance.  6.  The 
sixteenth  century  7.  Stum's  curriculum.  8.  Predominance 

xiii 


»r  CONTENTS 

VAGI 

of  Latin  in  the  secondary  school.  9.  Secondary  schools  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  10.  Reaction  from  the  Reformation, 
Puritanism,  Pietism,  Jansenism,  n.  Reaction  results  in  three 
types  of  secondary  schools,  Ritter-Akademien,  Real-Schule, 
Academy.  12.  Study  of  classics  urged  upon  psychological 
grounds.  13.  Influence  of  Rousseau  upon  secondary  educa- 
tion. 14.  German  secondary  education.  15.  English  second- 
ary education.  16.  French  secondary  education.  17.  The 
American  academy  of  the  nineteenth  century.  18.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  high  school.  19.  High  school  course  of  study,  t  '""  ~- 
20.  Relation  between  the  high  school  and  the  college.  21.  Dif- 
ferent types  of  high  schools. 

CHAPTER  IV — PRINCIPLES  AND  PLANS  FOR  REOR- 
GANIZING SECONDARY  EDUCATION      ...      67 

BY  CALVTN  OLIN  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (Harvard),  Assistant  Professor 
of  Education,  University  of  Michigan. 

i.  The  irrational  and  wasteful  methods  of  present-day  or- 
ganization and  administration  historically,  psychologically,  and 
logically  considered.  2.  Recent  attempts  at  improvement. 
3.  The  "bill  of  indictment."  4.  The  plexus  of  evils  in  the 
^  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  5.  Plans  for  reorganizing  the  sys- 
tem. 6.  The  six  and  six  division.  7.  The  five  groups  of  pupils 
to  be  considered.  8.  The  resulting  five  fundamental  courses 
of  study.  9.  The  four  general  plans  for  organizing  and  admin- 
istering the  six-year  high  school.  10.  Advantages  of  the  new 
plan.  ii.  The  six-year  curriculum.  12.  A  suggested  course  of 
study.  13.  Concluding  arguments. 

CHAPTER   V — INSTRUCTION:    ITS    ORGANIZATION 

AND  CONTROL 106 

By  EDWARD  C.  ELLIOTT,  PH.D.  (Columbia),  Professor  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Wisconsin. 

i.  The  meaning  and  nature  of  control.  2.  The  function  of 
school  control.  3.  The  forms  of  external  control*1  (a)  legislative, 
(ft)  administrative,  (c)  supervisory,  (d)  inspectorial.  4.  Three 
aims  of  subject-matter;  the  programme  of  studies;  the  cur- 
riculum; the  course  of  study;  relation  of  aims  to  the  forms  of  con- 
trol. 5.  Plans  and  specifications  of  instruction;  the  function  of 


CONTENTS  xv 


control.  6.  Inspectorial  control  of  instruction;  State  school  sys- 
tems and  higher  institutions.  7.  Internal  control  of  instruction; 
relation  of  principals  and  superintendents  thereto.  8.  Teachers, 
their  preparation  and  selection.  9.  Material  equipment  for 
instruction.  10.  Text-books;  selection;  free.  n.  Supervisory 
control  of  instruction;  efficiency  of  instruction.  12.  Pupils; 
preparation;  curriculums  and  courses  of  study  for;  tests  of 
attainment. 

NOTE. — Each  of  the  following  chapters  treat  their  respective 
subjects  in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  some  information  and 
many  suggestions.  They  are  primarily  for  teachers  in  service 
and  for  prospective  teachers  in  normal  schools,  colleges,  and 
educational  departments  of  universities.  The  life  purposes  of 
high  school  students  constitute  the  ultimate  objects  of  reference 
— not  college  admission  standards. 


CHAPTER  VI — MATHEMATICS 128 

BY  L.  C.  KARPINSKI,  PH.D.  (Strassburg),  Assistant  Professor  of 
Mathematics,  University  of  Michigan. 

i.  Historical  treatment  of  the  place  of  mathematics  in  in- 
struction. 2.  The  present  practical  bearing.  3.  The  natural 
appeal  of  mathematics.  4.  Its  intimate  connection  with  many 
fields  of  human  activity.  5.  A  plea  for  closer  correlation  among 
the  various  branches  of  mathematics.  6.  More  adequate  prep- 
aration on  the  part  of  teachers,  in  subject  matter  and  methods 
of  presentation.  7.  Suggested  changes  mainly  along  the  lines 
of  simplification  and  correlation  of  material  now  employed. 


CHAPTER  VII — PHYSICS 146 

BY  FREDERICK  EDWARD  KESTER,  PH.D.  (Cornell),  Head  of  De- 
partment of  Physics,  University  of  Kansas. 

i.  Physics,  its  elements  of  interest.  2.  Its  fundamental  proc- 
esses. 3.  Its  practical  and  pedagogical  values.  4.  History  of 
the  physics  course  in  the  high  school.  5.  Some  recent  defini- 
tions of  the  proper  content  of  the  course.  6.  Criticisms,  pro 
and  con,  of  these  definitions.  7.  Probable  future  of  the  course. 
8.  The  training  of  physics  teachers. 


xvi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII— CHEMISTRY 183 

BY  J.  E.  MILLS,  PH.D.    (North  Carolina),  formerly  Associate 
Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  North  Carolina. 

i.  Should  chemistry  be  taught  in  the  high  schools?    2.  The 
past   and    present   status   of    chemistry  in    the  high  schools. 

3.  Difficulties  in  the  way  of  successful  teaching  of  chemistry. 

4.  Suggestions  as  to  the  teaching  of  chemistry.     5.  Suggestions 
as  to   the   laboratory   equipment.     6.    Suggestions   as   to  the 
laboratory  work.     7.  Time  and  position  to  be  allotted  to  the 
course  in  chemistry.   8.  The  equipment  of  the  teacher.   9.  Text- 
books and  reference  books. 


CHAPTER  IX — BIOLOGY 198 

BY  ARTHUR  S.  PEARSE,  PH.D.  (Harvard),  formerly  Assistant 
Professor  of  Zoology,  University  of  Michigan;  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Biology,  St.  Louis  University  School  of  Medicine. 

i.  Importance  of  biology.  2.  Its  history  in  the  high  schools 
of  the  United  States.  3.  Present  status  of  biology  in  the  higk 
school.  4.  Obstacles  to  successful  teaching. 


CHAPTER  X — PHYSIOGRAPHY aia 

BY  WILLIAM  J.  SUTHERLAND,  A.M.  (Wisconsin),  President  State 
Normal  School,  Platteville,  Wisconsin. 

i.  Physiography  defined.  2.  Scientific  character  of  physiog- 
raphy. 3.  New  method  in  physiography.  4.  Applied  science 
in  secondary  schools.  5.  Summary  of  geographical  characters 
and  function  of  physiography.  6.  Practical  value  and  social 
phase  of  geographical  knowledge.  7.  Physiographic  texts, 
changes,  old  and  new  contrasted.  8.  Geographical  laborato- 
ries. 9.  Educational  value  of  physiography.  10.  Physiogra- 
phy in  curriculum;  justification  as  pure  or  applied  science. 

11.  Introductory  and   correlative    functions   of   physiography. 

12.  Physiography  and  physical  geography,  distinction.  13.  Theo- 
retical value  of  earth  science.     14.  A  better  method  in  physi- 
ography.    15.  Need  of  well-prepared  teachers  in  physiography. 
16.  Physiography,  promise  of  future. 


CONTENTS  xrii 

MOB 

CHAPTER  XI — ENGLISH 226 

BY  JOSEPH  VELLEERS  DENNEY,  A.M.  (Michigan),  Dean  of  the 
College  of  Arts,  Philosophy,  and  Science,  and  Professor  of 
English,  Ohio  State  University. 

i.  The  purpose  of  English  study.  2.  Fundamental  principle 
of  method.  3.  The  training  of  the  imagination.  4.  Ideals  of 
English  study.  5.  Present  pedagogical  beliefs.  6.  Text-book 
presentation  of  composition.  7.  Teaching  the  English  classics. 
8.  The  use  of  the  class-hour.  9.  Preparation  of  the  teacher. 
10.  General  scheme  of  the  English  course,  n.  Selection  of 
reading. 

CHAPTER    XII — PUBLIC    SPEAKING    AND    VOICE 

TRAINING 244 

BY  DWIGHT  E.  W  ATKINS,  A.M.  (Michigan),  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Speaking,  Knox  College. 

i.  Practical  value  of  public  speaking.  2.  When  it  should 
be  taught.  3.  Relation  to  study  for  the  professions.  4.  Rela- 
tion to  civics.  5.  Cultivation  of  leadership.  6.  Oral  inter- 
pretation of  literature.  7.  Vocal  atrophy.  8.  Training  of  the 
emotions.  9.  Training  of  the  will.  10.  General  improvement 
in  instruction,  u.  The  debate.  12.  The  oratorical  contest. 
13.  The  dramatic  club.  14.  General  tendencies.  15.  Lack  of 
uniformity  in  instruction.  16.  Resolutions  of  the  Illinois  Asso- 
ciation of  Teachers  of  English.  17.  Preparation  of  the  teacher. 
18.  Outlook  for  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XIII — LATIN 257 

BY  ARTHUR  TAPPAN  WALKER,  PH.D.  (Chicago),  Head  of  Latin 
Department,  University  of  Kansas. 

i.  Aims  of  Latin  study.  2.  Ability  to  read  Latin.  3.  Dis- 
ciplinary value.  4.  Value  for  pupils'  English.  5.  Literary 
and  historical  value.  6.  The  course  of  study.  7.  Report  of 
commission  on  entrance  requirements.  8.  Translation  at 
sight.  9.  Choice  of  reading  material.  10.  Latin  composition, 
u.  Formal  grammar  study.  12.  Training  of  the  teacher. 
13.  Minimum  preparation.  14.  Adequate  preparation. 


xviii  CONTENTS 

TASK 

CHAPTER  XIV — MODERN  LANGUAGES      ....    277 

By  W.  H.  CARRUTH,  Pn.D.  (Harvard),  Head  of  Department  of 
German,  University  of  Kansas. 

i.  Time  for  beginning.  2.  Inductive  method.  3.  Natural 
method.  4.  Reform  method.  5.  Text-books.  6.  Illustrative 
material.  7.  Preparation  of  teacher.  8.  Outlined  courses. 


CHAPTER  XV — HISTORY,  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT,  AND 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY 288 

BY  WAYLAND  J.  CHASE,  A.M.  (Brown),  Associate  Professor  of 
History,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

i.  Importance  of  the  study  of  history,  civil  government,  and 
political  economy.  2.  The  general  recognition  of  the  value 
of  these  studies.  3.  The  place  of  history  in  the  high  school 
curriculum.  4.  Methods  of  teaching  history.  5.  Aids  in  the 
teaching  of  history.  6.  Special  aspects  of  the  teaching  of  civil 
government.  7.  Special  aspects  in  the  teaching  of  political 
economy.  8.  The  qualifications  demanded  of  the  teacher  of 
history.  9.  The  preparation  of  the  teacher  of  history. 


CHAPTER  XVI — DRAWING,  FREE-HAND  AND  ME- 
CHANICAL     304 

BY  WALTER  SARGENT,  Professor  of  Fine  and  Industrial  Art  in 
Relation  to  Education,  Chicago  University. 

i.  Educational  and  industrial  significance  of  art.  2.  Value 
of  mechanical  drawing.  3.  History  of  art  in  American  schools. 
4.  Educational  values  of  free-hand  drawing,  of  mechanical 
drawing,  and  of  design.  5.  Courses  and  reasonable  standards 
of  attainment.  6.  Preparation  to  be  expected  in  elementary 
schools.  7.  Time  and  credits  allowed  to  drawing.  8.  Impor- 
tance of  drawing  in  mechanical  pursuits  and  in  developing  pub- 
lic taste.  9.  The  training  of  the  teacher  of  drawing. 


CONTENTS  xix 


CHAPTER  XVII — Music  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL    .   317 

BY  CHARLES  HUBERT  FARNSWORTH,  Professor  of  Music,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University. 

I.  What  music  courses  in  high  schools  should  be.  2.  Music 
compared  with  other  art  subjects.  3.  The  spirit  of  modern 
teaching  wrong.  4.  How  teaching  of  music  may  be  improved. 
5.  Estimate  of  aesthetics  as  a  study.  6.  Standards  of  music 
preparation.  7.  Plan  for  chorus  work.  8.  Justification  for 
sight-singing  discipline.  9.  Appreciation  courses.  10.  Plan  for 
appreciation  courses.  Credits,  n.  Courses  in  harmony,  com- 
position, and  voice.  12.  Musical  clubs.  13.  Utilization  and 
recognition  of  private  study  outside  of  school.  14.  Tempera- 
ment and  training  of  teachers. 


CHAPTER  XVIII — MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAIN- 
ING WITH  A  SUGGESTED  COURSE  OF  STUDY   332 

Bv  W.  B.  ARBAUGH,  A.M.  (Michigan),  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Ypsilanti,  Michigan. 

i.  Need  of  moral  culture  in  the  schools.  2.  Importance  of 
moral  training  in  modern  life.  3.  Moral  element  in  education 
needs  emphasizing.  4.  Some  aspects  of  the  general  problem. 
5.  Methods  of  instruction.  6.  Programme  of  study. 


CHAPTER  XIX — PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  .    .    .   346 

BY  CHARLES  SCOTT  BERRY,  PH.D.  (Harvard),  Assistant  Profes- 
sor of  Education,  University  of  Michigan. 

i.  Present-day  interest  in  physical  education.  2.  Physiology 
and  hygiene  in  the  high  school  curriculum.  3.  Beginning  of 
movement.  4.  Reasons  for  failure.  5.  Present  status  of  sub- 
ject. 6.  Medical  inspection.  7.  Revival  of  interest  hi  physi- 
cal education.  8.  Present  methods  of  organization.  9.  Nat- 
ure course.  10.  Training  of  teacher. 


xx  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    XX — SEX    PEDAGOGY    IN    THE    HIGH 

SCHOOL 361 

BY  ALDRED  SCOTT  WARTHIN,  PH.D.,  M.D.  (Michigan),  Professor 
of  Pathology  and  Director  of  the  Pathological  Laboratories  in  the 
University  of  Michigan. 

i.  Sex  problem.  2.  Attitude  of  modern  society  toward  the 
reproductive  function.  3.  Failure  of  parents  to  teach  their 
children  the  most  important  things  of  life.  4.  Results  of  igno- 
rance concerning  sexual  matters  as  shown  in  the  increase  of  the 
social  evil  and  venereal  diseases.  5.  Awakening  demand  for 
a  change  of  attitude.  6.  American  parents  beginning  to  look 
to  the  schools  for  help.  7.  Methods  of  attacking  the  sex  prob- 
lem. 8.  What  should  be  taught.  9.  Methods  of  teaching. 
10.  By  whom  should  it  be  taught,  n.  Constructive  teaching. 
12.  The  teaching  of  anatomic  and  physiologic  facts.  13.  Utili- 
zation of  courses  in  botany  and  zoology.  14.  Idealization  of 
the  sex  relationships.  15.  Self-abuse.  16.  Chastity  and  health. 
17.  Significance  of  puberty.  18.  Preventive  teaching.  19.  Re- 
sults of  sexual  promiscuity.  20.  Venereal  diseases.  21.  Com- 
mon-sense recognition  of  cause  and  effect.  22.  Physical  evils 
of  sexual  promiscuity.  23.  General  character  of  such  teaching. 
24.  Significance  of  prostitution.  25.  Degenerative  effects  of 
unrestrained  lust.  26.  High  school  problems. 

CHAPTER  XXI — AGRICULTURE 381 

BY  C.  H.  ROBISON,    PH.D.  (Columbia),  State   Normal  School, 
Upper  Montclair,  N.  J. 

i.  Agriculture  in  the  educational  system.  2.  Aims  and 
methods.  3.  Disciplinary  values.  4.  Relation  to  grade  work. 
5.  Present  status.  6.  College  entrance.  7.  Agriculture  in  the 
curriculum.  8.  The  one-year  course.  9.  The  longer  course. 
10.  Its  differentiation,  n.  Correlation.  12.  Texts.  13.  Ap- 
paratus. 14.  Time.  15.  Teachers. 

NOTE. — In  the  chapter  on  agriculture  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  give  some  idea  of  its  growth  in  the  high  school,  and  to  state 
some  of  its  problems  and  the  differing  opinions  regarding  their 
solution.  To  some  extent  these  are  problems  of  general  edu- 
cation, of  science  instruction,  and  to  a  large  extent,  of  indus- 
trial and  vocational  education — for  of  course  these  two  terms 


CONTENTS 


are  not  synonymous.  Even  the  very  brief  treatment  of  these 
phases  has  not  permitted  any  attention  to  the  interesting  eco- 
nomic and  sociological  questions  so  intimately  connected  in  the 
public  mind  with  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  curri- 
culum. 

CHAPTER  XXII — COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  .     .    .   396 

BY  SELBY  A.  MORAN,  B.L.  (Michigan),  Teacher  of  Commercial 
Subjects,  Ann  Arbor  High  School,  and  Principal  of  Stenographic 
Institute,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan. 

i.  Introductory.  2.  Aims.  3.  Character  and  success  of 
commercial  education.  4.  Subjects  in  the  course.  5.  Im- 
portance of  stenography.  6.  Text-books.  7.  Office  exhibits. 
8.  Preliminary  preparation.  9.  Obstacles  to  be  overcome. 

CHAPTER  XXIII — VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL,  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN- 
UAL TRAINING 409 

BY  E.  C.  WARRINER,  A.B.  (Michigan),  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Saginaiv,  Michigan. 

i.  Demand  for  vocational  training.  2.  Present-day  tendencies. 
3.  Need  for  vocational  training.  4.  Duty  of  the  State.  5.  Vo- 
cational training  in  the  high  school.  6.  Practical  difficulties. 
7.  Co-operation  between  high  school  and  factory.  8.  Techni- 
cal arts  high  schools.  9.  Three  lines  of  tendency.  10.  Result 
of  vocational  trend  in  education,  u.  Vocational  guidance. 

CHAPTER  XXIV — PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS    .   428 

BY  CHARLOTTE  JOY  FAKNSWORTH,  A.B.  (Wellesley),  Preceptress 
of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

i.  Theoretical  and  practical  subjects  in  the  high  school. 
2.  Need  for  new  valuation.  3.  A  course  of  study.  4.  Eco- 
nomics of  clothing.  5.  Planning  an  allowance.  6.  The  Study 
of  textile  materials.  7.  How  to  shop  to  advantage.  8.  House- 
hold sanitation  and  management.  9.  Fundamental  principles. 
10.  Home  care  of  sick.  n.  Emergency  work.  12.  House  fur- 
nishing. 13.  Principles  underlying  good  taste  and  economy. 


xxii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

14.  Social  relations  and  conduct.     15.  How  to  increase  effec- 
tiveness and  pleasure  when  individuals  meet.     16.  Recreation 
and  enjoyment.     17.  Value  of  plan  versus  drift  in  our  leisure 
time. 

CHAPTER    XXV — PSYCHOLOGY    IN    THE    HIGH 

SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 441 

By  IRVING  MiLiER,  PH.D.   (Chicago),  Professor  of  the  Science 
of  Education,  State  Teachers1  College,  Greeley,  Colorado. 

i.  Present-day  interest  in  psychology.  2.  A  central  science. 
3.  Varied  relations  to  life  illustrated  on  both  theoretical  and 
practical  sides.  4.  Newer  trend  in  psychology — its  independ- 
ence of  philosophy.  5.  Its  scientific  character.  6.  Biological 
and  functional  point  of  view.  7.  Early  recognition  in  secondary 
education.  8.  Present  status  in  high  schools.  9.  Value  of 
non-professional  basis,  cultural,  moral,  and  religious,  in  rela- 
tion to  mental  control.  10.  Text-books  and  other  aids  to  study; 
current  improvements,  choice  of  books,  n.  Suggestions  on 
methods.  12.  Future  of  subject  in  high  schools. 

CHAPTER  XXVI — THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY    .   460 

BY  THEODORE  KOCH,  A.M.   (Harvard),  Librarian,   University 
of  Michigan. 

i.  Importance  of  problem.  2.  Growth  of  high  school  libra- 
ries. 3.  Library  work  vs.  teaching.  4.  Difference  between 
school  library  and  public  library.  5.  Duties  of  the  librarian. 
6.  Assistance  for  the  librarian.  7.  Purposes  of  a  school  li- 
brary. 8.  Teaching  the  use  of  the  library.  9.  Ignorance 
of  average  pupil  concerning  books.  10.  Library  instruction. 

11.  Specimen     questions    concerning    books    and  'their    use. 

12.  Some  things  a  teacher  should  know  about  books  and  libra- 
ries.    13.   Library   courses.     14.  Value  of   library  instruction. 

15.  Importance  of  early  acquaintance  with  books  as  tools. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 471 

APPENDIX 533 

INDEX 547 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  I 

CURRENT  DEMANDS  UPON  THE  PROGRAMME  OF 
STUDIES' 

CHARLES  HUGHES  JOHNSTON,  PH.D. 

DEAN    OF   SCHOOL   OF    EDUCATION,    UNIVERSITY   OF   KANSAS 

The  High  School  Programme. — A  modicum  of  educa- 
tional theory,  half  articulate,  but  disentangled  from  the 
great  mass  of  historical  tradition  and  social  prejudice, 
doubtless  functions  feebly  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
select  and  organize  programmes  of  studies  for  high 
schools.  The  needs  of  high  schools,  their  relations  to 
the  college,  the  professions,  and  the  vocations  figure  in- 
creasingly in  this  educational  frameworking  of  the  last 
decade.  Technical  skill,  constructive  professional  ideals, 
and  cultural  and  moral  demands  are  conspicuously  em- 
phasized in  various  types  of  discussions  of  the  curriculum 
content  and  the  social  function  of  secondary  education. 
Wide-spread  and  often  adversely  critical  public  concern 
in  this  question  of  the  content  of  the  course  makes  more 
urgent  the  necessity  of  co-operation  among  those  who 
can  effectively  and  comprehensively  survey  and  take 
inventory  of  the  available  resources.  The  public  high 
school  is  in  a  critically  vital  stage  of  its  evolution.  His- 
toric forces  in  our  educational  development  have  forced 
upon  this  comparatively  young  institution  ideals  remote 
from  the  common  man.  Even  the  most  respectable  of 

1  Consult  chapter  V  for  the  officially  adopted  usage  of  "programme 
of  studies,"  "curriculum,"  and  "course  of  study." 

3 


4  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

its  courses  seem  to  this  aroused  and  thoughtful  public  to 
represent  undue  and  irrationally  difficult  peculiarities,  to 
be  ineffective  in  attainments  which  pass  counter  in  the 
actual  moral  or  industrial  world,  and  to  be  bent  upon  en- 
forcing unattainable  scholastic  standards.  These  stand- 
ards are  thought  indeed  to  smack  of  intellectual  luxury, 
to  be  narrow,  stereotyped,  and  undemocratic.  There  is 
no  considerable  prejudice  against  "unescapable  condi- 
tions of  scholarship  and  intellectual  living."  There  is, 
however,  coming  into  vigorous  existence  a  social  con- 
science which  will  soon  brook  no  dallying  with  the  like- 
wise unescapable  school  functions  of  insuring  economic 
efficiency,  sounder  moral  integrity,  and  perhaps  a  measure 
of  aesthetic  development.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  curve 
which  indicates  graphically  the  popularity  and  predomi- 
nance of  certain  high  school  studies  correlates  too  closely 
with  changing  college  admission  requirements  for  us  to 
point  historically  to  any  healthy,  self-orienting  character- 
istics within  the  high  school  organizations  themselves. 
This  is  past  history,  however.  The  high  school  will 
henceforth  make  history.  It  is  clambering  to  its  feet. 
Its  leaders  are  organizing  the  resources  for  combined  or 
at  least  co-operative  attack  upon  the  varied  community 
issues.  The  multiplicity  and  complexity  of  the  problems 
furnish  a  magnificent,  urgent,  and  inspiriting  challenge. 
Co-operation  between  High  School  and  College. — It  is 
said  that  the  typical  college  man  preserves  history  and 
tradition;  that  the  typical  school  man  makes  history  and 
tradition;  and  that  their  sympathies  as  well  as  their  func- 
tions are  diverse  and  antagonistic.  This  has  apparently 
been  so;  it  is  not  so  now.  Because  of  a  great  social 
pressure  we  all  note  the  growing  spirit  of  co-operation 
between  the  schools  and  the  colleges — a  new  brotherhood 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  5 

of  educational  workers.  "Time  was  when  the  college 
was  a  kind  of  Olympus  and  the  public  school  a  lower 
region.  Once  each  college  went  on  its  own  way  without 
consultation  with  school  authorities  and  without  regard 
to  school  conditions,  but  the  continual  advance  in  schol- 
arship and  in  professional  insight  among  public-school 
teachers  has  wrought  a  change  of  attitude."  *  Now  very 
many  of  our  secondary  teachers  are  scholars  and  have 
done  a  considerable  amount  of  graduate  work.  There  is 
no  longer  a  great  gulf  fixed  between  the  college  and  the 
high  school.  This  growth  into  a  closer,  more  cordial  re- 
lationship enables  us  to  say  that  the  school  and  the  college 
are  directing  different  parts  of  the  same  process.  It  en- 
ables President  Pritchett,  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  to 
say  that  the  policyof  higher  educational  institutions  is  now 
marked  by  two  important  facts:  (i)  Freedom  for  the 
school  in  the  choice  of  studies  and  methods,  so  that  it  may 
make  its  work  adaptable  to  all  who  resort  to  it,  most  of 
whom  do  not  enter  college;  (2)  insistence  by  the  college 
that  the  student  in  the  school  attain  an  adequate  intellect- 
ual training  irrespective  of  the  details  of  how  it  maybe  pro- 
cured. In  short,  we  may  look  forward  to  the  day  when 
the  school  shall  have  gained  such  efficiency  and  strength 
that  it  can  stand  alone  in  its  curriculum  making  and  not 
have  to  swim  with  the  cork  of  supervision  and  college 
examination.  This  will  mark  the  establishment  of  an 
honor  system  between  schools  and  colleges,  and  is  clearly 
foreshadowed  in  the  most  recent  modifications  of  college 
admission  requirements  by  even  Harvard,  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Social  Conditions  Change  the  Programme  of  Studies. — 
The  most  delicate,  yet  the  most  urgent  and  most  difficult 

1  This  from  the  dean  of  one  of  our  universities. 


6  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

task  before  schoolmen  to-day  is  this:  How  effect  the 
necessary  changes  in  the  material  of  instruction,  the  pro- 
gramme of  studies,  without  too  much  harmful  disorgani- 
zation and  confusion.  I  introduce  my  discussion  as  I 
have  to  suggest  at  the  outset  that  this  problem  will  have 
to  be  worked  out  by  high  school  leaders  on  the  ground, 
not  without  agonizing  thought  and  most  likely  some  costly 
experimentation.  Such  discussions  as  this  book  contains 
will  offer  some  constructive  conceptions  and  will  aid  in 
stating  leading  issues.  The  actual  national,  State,  city, 
and  local  systems  must  always  be  the  testing  crucibles 
in  the  evolution  of  a  workable  plan. 

Let  us  attempt  to  define  the  social  condition  for  which 
we  must  modify  or  enlarge  our  programme  of  studies 
and  our  high  school  ideal. 

Education  means  something  it  has  never  meant  before. 
We  have  only  to  enumerate  the  kinds  of  education  that 
society  calls  into  existence  if  we  wish  to  face  concrete 
issues.  In  this  way  we  may  anticipate  some  of  the  adap- 
tations to  which  the  future  high  school  must  conform. 
Kinds  of  semi-private  educational  institutions  exist  for 
almost  every  profession,  religious  belief,  or  social  tenet. 
No  one  has  had  the  temerity  to  suggest  a  classification 
nor  to  analyze  the  vague  social  consciousness  which  calls 
them  into  existence.  Research,  religious,  ethical,  com- 
mercial, industrial,  vocational,  supervisional,  reforma- 
tory, cultural,  disciplinary,  avowedly  professional,  purely 
charitable,  propagandist! — and  freakish  types  may  be 
partially  characteristic  of  many  phases  of  concrete  mental 
activity  called,  nowadays,  educational.  All  these  social 
experiments  have  their  effect  upon  prevailing  educational 
opinion.  En  masse  they  constitute  our  educational  era. 
Whatever  of  permanence  attaches  to  these  spontaneous 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  7 

Teachings  for  things  educational  we  must  eventually  in- 
corporate in  some  type  of  public  secondary  school  insti- 
tution. 

Variety  of  Existing  Educational  Institutions  and  Ac- 
tivities.— The  extension  of  university  privileges  at  all  times 
to  teachers  of  both  sexes  at  the  Universities  of  London, 
Harvard,  Pennsylvania,  Cincinnati,  etc.,  the  National 
University  (suggested),  numerous  new  institutions  for 
research,  evening  Y.  M.  C.  A.  universities,  international 
congresses,  national  exchanges  of  professors  and  middle 
school  teachers,  parents'  co-operative  associations,  an 
international  academy  as  an  authority  on  language  re- 
form (suggested),  exclusive  Catholic  and  Jewish  schools, 
national  and  State  schools  for  grown  immigrants,  schools 
for  health  instruction  of  soldiers  (England),  State  schools 
for  veterinary  surgery  (suggested),  Farmers'  Experi- 
mental College  on  Wheels  (Booker  Washington),  army 
cooking  schools,  special  schools  for  ophthalmology,  otol- 
ogy, rhinology,  laryngology,  etc.  (suggested  in  lieu  of 
recent  organized  agitation  for  adequate  medical  super- 
vision of  school  children),  constitute  an  arbitrary  choice 
from  our  long  list.  Extending  further  the  connotation 
of  education,  and  enormously  increasing  our  perplexity, 
we  may  note  many  less  comprehensive  phases,  some 
genuine,  some  abortive,  all  characteristic  of  our  age  and 
exigencies  of  our  growth.  We  note,  further,  schools  for 
religious  pedagogy,  schools  for  deaconesses,  the  great 
evening  trade-schools  of  Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  and 
Philadelphia,  Southern  industrial  schools  for  negroes, 
evening  high  schools,  agricultural  high  schools,  high 
schools  of  commerce,  manual  training  schools,  Lyman 
and  other  city  reform  schools,  the  George  Junior  Re- 
public, the  Rand  and  other  schools  of  social  science. 


8  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

schools  for  socialism,  breadwinners'  colleges,  home  schools 
for  Jewish  girls,  truant  schools  for  girls,  schools  for  incor- 
rigible boys,  schools  for  crippled  and  deformed  children, 
schools  for  old  people,  schools  for  training  in  prevalent 
ailments  of  low  humanity  (Washington  Booth's  sugges- 
tion), the  Department  of  Humanity  in  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, and  even  schools  for  anarchy.  And  if  this  be  not 
enough,  our  list  runs  on  freely  with  various  struggling 
attempts  at  vocational  schools  for  journalists,  for  libra- 
rians, for  salesmen  and  saleswomen,  for  judges  (Paris), 
for  cash-boys,  for  nurse-maids  (London),  for  policemen 
(Russia),  for  grave-diggers  (Belgium),  for  housewifery 
(England),  for  prospective  wives  and  husbands  (sug- 
gested), for  washerwomen,  and  even  for  chimney-sweeps 
(Prussia),  for  croupiers  (Monte  Carlo),  and  for  aeronauts 
(Boston).  By  continuing  such  a  survey  we  may  get  an 
appalling  picture  of  actuality,  a  semi-civilized  situation 
replete  with  suggestions,  whose  ultimate  re*sume"  will  be 
impossible  until  philosophy  is  as  broad  as  life,  and  until 
educational  endeavors  can  more  successfully  cope  with 
genuine  social  imperfections.  One  great  philosopher  has 
said  that  confusion,  tantalizing  and  agonizing  very  often, 
is  the  price  we  pay  for  subsequent  charity.  The  pan- 
sophic  ideals  of  Luther,  or  Bacon,  or  Comenius,  will  not 
avail  us  here.  What  Education  is  I  am  not  rash  enough 
to  say.  That  the  term  connotes  more  than  it  has  con- 
noted for  any  other  age  is  assuredly  evident.  Neither 
Plato,  nor  Quintilian,  nor  Locke,  nor  Spencer,  nor  even 
Rousseau,  faced,  much  less  solved,  our  present-day  prob- 
lems. Their  simple  naive  devices  and  absolute  dicta 
were  meant  for  an  earlier  time  and  a  simpler  civilization. 
Industrial  Training. — Of  the  problems  pressing  upon 
schoolmen  in  actual  service,  the  one  of  industrial  train- 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  9 

ing  is  typical  and  urgent.  The  list  of  the  vocational 
schools  in  the  city  of  Munich  will  sufficiently  emphasize 
the  probable  complexity  of  our  educational  future  in  this 
respect.  This  one  city  assumes  responsibility  for  its 
citizens  by  directing  forty-two  vocational  schools  with 
organized  courses  of  study  bearing  upon  the  trades  in 
question.  These  are  schools  for  butchers,  bakers,  shoe- 
makers, barbers,  wood  turners,  glaziers,  gardeners,  con- 
fectioners, wagon  makers,  blacksmiths,  tailors,  photog- 
raphers, interior  decorators,  hotel  and  restaurant  waiters, 
coachmen,  painters,  bookbinders,  paper  hangers,  potters 
and  stove  setters,  watch-makers,  clock-makers,  jewellers, 
goldsmiths  and  silversmiths,  founders,  pewterers,  copper- 
smiths, stucco  workers  and  marble  workers,  wood  car- 
vers, coopers,  saddlers  and  leather  workers,  business  ap- 
prentices, printers  and  typesetters,  lithographers  and 
engravers,  building  iron  and  ornamental  iron  workers, 
machine  makers,  mechanics,  cabinet-makers,  masons  and 
stone  cutters,  and  carpenters.  All  these  courses  of  study 
were  forced  into  existence  in  this  city  between  the  years 
1900  and  1905. 

A  supplementary  list  of  novel  ideas  as  regards  the 
course  of  study  are  the  following:  A  course  in  the  hu- 
mane treatment  of  animals  required  by  law  in  Illinois, 
School  of  Peace  (Boston),  consular  schools  of  commerce 
and  administration  (Chicago),  Cantonal  Commercial 
School  (Zurich),  schools  for  railroad  men  with  elab- 
orate curriculum  (P.  R.,  R.  etc.),  schools  for  mine 
workers  (Lost  Creek),  department  of  Life-saving  (Colum- 
bia University),  department  of  Horsemanship  (Norwich 
University),  schools  for  real  estate  dealers  (Y.  M.  C.  A. 
University,  Boston),  European  hotel  schools,  School  for 
Household  Arts  (Barnard),  Wifehood  Guild  (Long  Isl- 


10  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and),  travelling  cooking  schools  (Germany),  schools  for 
"Intellectual  Elite"  (this  principle  is  in  operation  in 
one  large  city),  Bureau  of  Hygiene  (to  teach  mothers  in- 
fantile diseases,  etc.),  schools  for  "wet"  voters  in  St. 
Louis  to  instruct  in  use  of  ballot,  the  Caroline  Rest 
for  mothers  (course  in  the  care  of  babies,  Chicago), 
elective  course  in  care  of  babies  (Missouri),  schools  for 
tubercular  children,  cigar  schools  (Belgium),  schools 
for  coast  defence  (Virginia),  school  hygiene  clinics  for 
the  study  of  typical  ailments  of  school  children  (Scot- 
land), trade  hygienic  institutes  for  workmen  in  typical 
ailments  of  occupations  (Germany),  schools  for  deport- 
ment, telephone  sweet-voice  schools  (Los  Angeles),  courses 
in  railroad  problems  (University  of  Illinois — proposed), 
City  Fire  College  (New  York),  high  school  course  in 
"Civic  and  Industrial  Chicago"  (Chicago),  schools  for 
waiters  (three  in  London),  School  for  Women  Police 
(Kansas  City),  and  School  for  Municipal  Administration 
(Columbia  University — proposed) . 

This  list  is  suggestive,  but  not  complete.  We  have 
ninety-seven  distinctive  fields  into  which  educators  are 
driven  by  the  public  to  enter.  One  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  courses  are  mostly  concerned  with  processes  which 
we  have  not  heretofore  thought  of  as  educational.  It 
all  seems  to  mean  that  we  have  rapidly  democratized  edu- 
cation. It  seems  to  mean  that  wherever  the  torch-light 
of  education  does  not  yet  shine,  we  are  going  to  hear  the 
"  voice  in  the  wilderness  crying."  Indeed  it  is  natural  for 
us  to  suppose  that  our  list  of  public  school  failures  will 
greatly  increase  just  because  we  have  educated  the  public 
up  to  the  point  of  demanding  more.  If  Hale  claims  it 
does  not  insure  morality;  Eliot  that  it  is  not  worth  the 
money  spent;  Admiral  Evans  that  its  individual  results 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  11 

are  contemptible;  Fiske  that  it  is  useless  for  business; 
Edison  that  it  is  useless  in  the  world  of  applied  sciences; 
A.  C.  Benson  and  Frederick  Harrison  that  it  is  a  ma- 
chine for  destroying  individual  leadership;  Rabbi  Hirsch 
that  it  is  a  typical  failure  as  a  twentieth  century  institu- 
tion, we  can  reply  that  these  criticisms  are  a  natural 
outcome  and  an  encouraging  symptom.  Some  day  the 
ideal  of  the  public  school  will  evolve.1 

Public  Support  for  Real  Needs. — The  public  is  willing 
to  support  what  the  public  very  clearly  needs.  Industrial 
items,  utility  items,  including  agricultural,  are  most 
clearly  seen.  Sociological  necessities,  in  the  broad  sense 
of  making  a  more  efficient  voting  class,  are  next  in  order. 
Biological  motives  and  principles  in  the  modern  hygienic 
sense,  the  art  of  sanitary  observance,  preventive  medicine, 
and  increase  of  physical  effectiveness,  come  next.  Then 
there  is  a  drop  to  those  we  may  call  religious  items  in  a 
non-sectarian  sense;  and  then  to  those  psychological  in 
the  sense  of  the  necessity  that  the  school  shall  understand 
and  observe  the  individual  types  under  its  direction. 
Then,  whatever  the  ideal  order  maybe,  comes  the  aesthetic, 
in  the  sense  of  equipment  for  life's  leisure  hours;  the 
luxury  side  of  education.  Lastly  in  popular  importance 
comes  the  administrative  in  the  sense  of  economical 
business  methods,  a  lack  of  waste  and  friction  in  school 
machinery,  an  understanding  of  retardation  and  promo- 
tion, and  the  very  great  problems  of  equitable  and  per- 
manent principles  of  taxation.  This  is  doubtless  a  fair 
index  of  our  social,  or  as  many  call  it,  our  democratic 
consciousness.  Vaguely  as  yet  are  our  school  workers 
sensing  these  many  voices.  Slowly  are  school  move- 

1  This  list  has  been  adapted  from  an  article  by  the  writer  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Educational  Review,  February,  1909,  pp.  160-180. 


12  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ments  just  now  squaring  themselves  with  all  these  real 
issues.  Society,  which  supports  our  public  system  of 
schools  creates  its  demands  as  it  feels  them;  industrial 
efl&ciency,  twentieth  century  morality,  and  a  health  con- 
science with  regard  to  one's  self  and  one's  neighbors,  the 
demand  for  beauty  in  one's  own  environment;  these  are 
the  things  it  desires  at  present.  How  conceive  our  pro- 
gramme of  studies  and  how  remodel  our  curriculums  that 
the  changes  called  for  may  make  for  permanent  and  not 
abortive  development? 

The  Issues  before  the  Schools. — It  is  clear  that  certain 
great  issues  stand  out  for  those  who  organize  our  school 
courses  of  study.  They  are  these:  How  choose  and  ar- 
range courses  that  the  curriculums  will  best  minister  to 
all  pressing  industrial  and  life  needs  of  the  pupils,  includ- 
ing agricultural  demands  as  well  as  all  other  manual  oc- 
cupations? Again,  how  make  a  programme  of  studies 
affect  more  directly  the  national  observance  of  hygienic 
living  ?  How  make  healthful  living  fashionable  ?  Again, 
how  make  what  we  deal  out  in  our  courses  of  study  more 
clearly  bring  into  favor  a  moral  standard  which  will 
guide  us  in  the  genuine  perplexities  of  right  acting  under 
twentieth  century  sociological  conditions?  Next — not 
yet  an  issue  for  most  of  us  except  in  a  narrow  personal 
way — how  shall  our  courses  affect  the  individual  and 
the  public  taste;  how  make  art  a  necessity  of  life? 
Again,  how  conceive  our  courses  and  plan  them  that 
we  can  adapt  educational  material  so  that  we  may 
detect,  direct,  and  preserve  the  individual  differences  in 
our  own  students?  Lastly  perhaps,  how  can  we  arrange 
our  accidental  division  of  eight-year  elementary  and 
four-year  high  school  programme  into  the  equal  six- 
year  division  ? 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  13 

Planning  a  Course  of  Study. — The  planning  of  a  course 
of  study  is  not  entirely,  not  chiefly  indeed,  a  technical, 
mechanical,  administrative  issue.  It  is  easy  to  apply 
exact  treatment  and  method  to  physical  machinery,  chem- 
ical elements  of  soils,  timber  supply,  water  power,  dynamo 
functions,  or  to  labor  supply,  but  students,  school  ma- 
terial, demand  much  more  than  this  quantitative  and 
lumped  sort  of  treatment.  We  have  studied  and  to  a 
certain  extent  mastered  the  administrative  machinery 
and  have  clearly  named  some  of  its  problems.  Now  we 
should  study  intensively  the  functions  of  curriculums 
themselves.  So  much  merely  to  say  that  our  task  is  a 
reorganization  of  the  programme  of  studies.  Inevitably 
then  we  should  consider  (i)  these  programmes  of  studies 
historically;  (2)  the  modern  criticism  directed  against  our 
present  one;  (3)  fundamental  ideals  which  influence  its 
development;  and  (4)  certain  constructive  suggestions 
which  bear  promise.  These  in  detail  are  to  be  found  in 
the  chapters  which  follow. 

Development  of  the  Curriculum. — At  first  the  American 
school  is  a  slavish  imitation  of  European  models.  Like 
those  of  England  and  Scotland,  it  represents  only  provin- 
cial issues.  Later  our  schools  adapt  themselves  in  be- 
wilderment to  a  split  society,  and  vaguely  enlarge  the 
curriculum.  The  grammar  schools  overlap  private  acad- 
emies. After  the  Revolution  democracy  makes  univer- 
sities for  the  people.  Borne  in  on  the  same  wave  comes 
the  elementary  school.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  American  high  school  appears.  These 
movements  are  hesitating  attempts  to  knit  rich  and  poor 
in  democratic  unity,  rather  than,  by  anticipating  society's 
differentiations,  to  equip  each  for  his  probable  needs. 
All  this  was  in  part  French  Revolutionary  sentiment 


14  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

rather  than  common  sense.  This  administrative  treat- 
ment resulted  in  the  ladder  logic,  all  marching  toward 
the  university  apex.  In  fifty  years  States  take  control  of 
these  movements.  With  the  school  system  on  its  feet 
administratively,  we  next  note  the  throes  of  internal 
organization,  external  articulation,  and  unmanageable 
curriculums.  Blind  alleys,  waste  and  lack  of  universal 
appeal  produce  slogans  for  reform.  At  this  point  his- 
torically the  single  curriculum  is  superficial  and  artificial. 
State  universities  (Michigan  for  example)  were  on  foun- 
dations which  enabled  them  to  pattern  after  German  uni- 
versities and  institutions  like  Harvard.  Naturally  at  first 
what  directions  the  schools  did  get  were  largely  in  the 
nature  of  superimposed  tasks.  This  sort  of  guidance, 
good  in  part,  and  all  of  any  sort  at  command,  could  not 
prevent  the  resultant  artificiality  in  many  of  the  courses 
of  study.  Colleges  then  became  lenient  and  the  accredit- 
ing system  of  the  Middle  West  relieved  the  pressure  in 
the  high  school,  but  added  a  grade  and  promotion  ma- 
chinery to  the  elementary  schools.  Popularized  science 
and  vaguely  conceived  humanitarian  studies  confused 
still  more  the  bewildered  curriculum  makers.  Then 
later  the  attempt  to  give  every  subject  social  significance, 
as  Dewey  preached,  added  naturally  to  the  confusion. 
Indeed,  throughout  the  history  of  the  programme  of 
studies  even  good  suggestions  have  proved  disorganizing 
and  costly.  Like  "growing  pains,"  however,  they  are 
symptomatic  of  progress. 

At  present  we  are  hearing  on  all  sides  from  the  propo- 
nents of  vocational  education.  At  recent  State  teachers' 
associations  it  appears,  from  the  agricultural  culture 
urged,  that  we  are  all  immediately  destined  to  return  in- 
telligently to  the  soil.  M.  E.  Sadler  and  his  thirty  col- 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  15 

laborators,  after  an  elaborate  world  survey,1  prophesy  a 
complete  reorganization  of  the  years  of  public  school  life, 
and  the  incorporation  of  direct  moral  education  in  the 
secondary  curriculum.  E.  S.  Draper,  of  New  York  State, 
has  already  instituted  far-reaching  reformations  in  specific 
directions.  Massachusetts  disturbs  at  present  only  the 
high  school  organization  and  the  upper  grammar  grades. 

Criticism  of  Modern  Public  School  Education. — De- 
structive critics  see  moral  perverseness  and  intellectual 
obtuseness  underneath  the  whole  reconstructive  modern 
movement.  Constructive  critics  see  it  all  as  a  vital  fact, 
an  exigency  in  a  nation's  quick  growth,  an  inevitable  stage 
of  possible  development.  The  process  is  not  idealized, 
nor  is  it  conscious  of  itself  from  within.  The  secondary 
school,  though  we  boast  of  it  as  a  democratic  institution, 
has  not  the  first  mark  of  such.  It  is  not  self-orienting. 
With  so  many  perspectives,  none  are  compelling.  All 
suggested  clews  are  somewhere  followed  up  regardless  of 
their  source.  But  there  is  little  conservation  of  good  or 
bad  experiments,  of  educational  experience;  no  secure 
and  confident  attitude  toward  criticism  and  advice;  no 
unswerving  devotion  to  an  articulate  educational  ideal 
similar  to  the  moving  conceptions  which  lie  at  the  basis, 
for  example,  of  Plato's  "  Republic." 

The  colleges  and  universities  have  had  no  time  to  study 
the  problems,  and  the  merely  formal  method  of  training 
polishes  the  superficiality.  As  David  Snedden  observes, 
historically  the  chief  function  of  the  American  college, 
so  far  as  practical  occupations  are  concerned,  has  been 
the  preparation  of  teachers.  More  of  its  graduates  have 
gone  into  this  than  into  any  other  field,  yet  until  recently 
it  could  be  said  that  the  colleges  refused  to  recognize  that 

1 "  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere." 


16  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

teaching  in  the  high  schools  was  a  profession  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  its  graduates  in  such  numbers  were  making 
a  career  of  it.  The  public  has  been  obliged  to  accept 
this  opinion  only  to  find  their  preparation  incomplete  and 
their  first  years  of  apprenticeship  in  many  cases  wasteful. 
This  is  a  part  of  the  unsatisfactory  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  curriculums.  It  is  now  all  past.  An  histori- 
cal survey  shows  that  one  is  less  and  less  likely  to  see  any 
college  trying  to  dictate  secondary  programmes  of  studies. 
Indeed  history  shows  that  our  curriculum  makers  are 
driven  more  and  more  to  look  to  local  clews,  retaining  as 
anchorage  a  few  fundamental  but  simple  educational 
principles,  and  a  sound  appreciation  of  elementary  life 
problems. 

Signs  of  Improvement  in  Our  Educational  System. — We 
should  hence  turn  to  the  instructional  and  more  scientific 
field  where  we  may  see  certain  constructive  conceptions 
and  ideals  which  bid  fair  soon  to  be  incorporated  in  our 
educational  system.  Certain  big  ideals  are  slowly  be- 
coming articulate  for  us,  upon  which  our  curriculums 
and  courses  will  ultimately  rest.  The  simplified  princi- 
ples of  hygienic  and  sanitary  enlightenment  and  prevent- 
ive medicine,  inculcated  with  strong  aspirations  to  acquire 
the  goal  of  physical  uprightness,  will  probably  furnish 
material  for  a  continuous  graded  course  of  study  through- 
out the  elementary  and  high  school,  which  will  aim  not 
at  an  initiation  into  the  technical  sciences,  but,  with  the 
help  of  the  gymnasium  and  athletic  field  as  laboratories, 
at  furnishing  the  reliant  basis  and  impetus  for  the  art  of 
living.  Outside  pressure  is  forcing  this  upon  the  school. 
A  physical  conscience  must  be  and  will  be  simply  but 
persistently  developed.  Again,  the  incipient  stages  of 
the  aesthetic  experience,  the  natural  and  unrestricted 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  17 

approach  to  the  beautiful,  will  soon  cease  to  be  the  de- 
tached and  exclusive  privilege  of  those  only  who  can 
defy  school  standards.  Teachers,  however,  in  order  to 
conserve  such  mental  characteristics,  must  live  in  the 
world  of  the  beautiful  themselves.  This  art  principle  in 
school  work  must  establish  itself  pedagogically  and  uni- 
versally. Hundreds  of  isolated  experiments  prove  the 
desirability  and  the  practicability  of  this  step  also.  It 
will  come  when  higher  institutions  can  inculcate  the  art 
spirit  in  embryo  teachers,  and  when  teaching  itself  is  en- 
tered upon  as  a  noble  art  and  not  as  a  job — and  when 
we  can  see  more  nearly  equalized  the  conditions  for 
teaching  all  along  the  line.  With  this,  and  because  of 
this,  a  simpler,  clearer,  and  less  ambitious  intellectual 
attainment,  carefully  and  without  haste,  will  be  under- 
taken with  more  dignified  composure.  With  this  cur- 
tailing of  costly  luxuries,  and  extravagant  exploitation  in 
our  curriculum,  it  will  come  about  naturally  that  emphasis 
upon  the  bizarre  occurrences  of  the  recitation  period  will 
weaken,  and  will  be  replaced  by  the  much  desired  empha- 
sis upon  protracted,  unswerving,  and  delicately  skilful 
direction  in  the  automatization  of  those  fundamental 
activities,  relatively  few  in  number,  which  stand  one  in 
stead  in  either  cultural  or  vocational  crises.  Bagley  has 
recently  shown  1  clearly  that  secondary  intellectual  train- 
ing too  often  stops  short  of  the  point  where  self-mastery 
of  the  finer  acquisitions  in  any  specific  disciplines  may  be 
accomplished.  The  motivation,  the  worth-whileness  of 
the  effort  to  attain  fine  capacity  through  intellectual  dis- 
ciplines, is  lacking.  The  reason  for  this  resides  in  the 
condition.  There  is  a  confusion  and  a  vagueness  in  the 
high  school  incentives  to  this  conscious  effortful  mastery 

lCf.  School  Review,  February,  1911. 


18  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

of  a  process.  Success  here  also  involves  and  implies  the 
practice  in  and  the  anticipation  during  the  school  period 
of  civic  and  personal  virtues,  moral  training,  if  not  for  a 
time  direct  moral  instruction.  Such  bases  will  both 
shorten  and  enrich  the  programme  of  studies,  make  for 
professional  pride  and  loyalty  in  teachers,  and  recognize 
the  in  loco  parentis  function  of  the  school,  which  also 
seems  just  now  to  be  its  unavoidable  duty. 

Analysis  of  Aims  and  Individual  Differences  Urgent. — 
The  high  school  teacher  must  know  more  intimately  and 
appreciate  more  critically  his  or  her  charges  who  are 
going  through  vital  physical,  mental,  and  spiritual  changes 
which  make  or  mar,  tone  up  or  discolor,  sweeten  or  embit- 
ter their  whole  after  lives.  The  uncontrollable,  inarticu- 
late, but  ceaselessly  active  undercurrent  of  passion  and 
latent  power  is  there — critical  for  the  educator.  Not  only 
sanity,  kindliness,  and  justice,  but  studied  insight  into  the 
meaning  and  critical  importance  of  these  vital  changes 
must  be  at  command.  For  one  cannot  any  longer  retain 
self-respect  if  he  accepts  his  teaching  work  as  merely  the 
imparting  of  information.  He  is  more  and  more  insist- 
ently challenged  to  make  men  and  women  and  to  study 
continually  the  intricate  complexities  of  those  processes 
he  by  virtue  of  his  position  must  direct  and  refine.  School 
administrators  and  all  teachers  in  the  ranks  must  formu- 
late more  concisely,  then  carry  out,  a  clean-cut  policy  with 
reference  to  the  genuine  and  concrete  issue  suggested 
above. 

Lack  of  Agreement  among  Educators. — For  example, 
the  writer,  in  order  to  compare  professional  opinion  as 
to  how  to  introduce  hygienic  instruction,  sanitation,  and 
preventive  medicine  into  high  schools,  devised  a  ques- 
tionnaire which  suggested  these  four  possible  solutions: 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  19 

"Would  you  have  this  work  given  (a)  independently  in 
systematic  short  courses,  or  (b)  in  connection  with  biol- 
ogy and  physiology,  or  (c)  in  an  independent  course  in 
morals,  which  course  would  include  laws  and  duties  of 
health,  of  sex,  physical  and  moral  purity,  and  also  the 
principles  of  honor,  manners,  patriotism,  social  responsi- 
bilities, justice,  etc.,  or  (d)  would  you  have  it  left  to  some 
other  agency  ?"  In  all  likelihood  the  four  ways  suggested, 
which  seem  to  be  about  equally  favored,  since  no  one 
knows,  will  each  be  pretty  fully  exploited  before  the 
general  adoption  permanently  of  any  one  of  them.  The 
great  numbers  of  answers  from  supposedly  educational 
experts  illustrated  by  their  diversity  our  inability  to  settle 
off-hand  a  single  curriculum  modification.  As  with  the 
history  of  the  introduction  of  any  other  school  subject, 
costly  experimentation  is  necessary,  although  we  should 
try  to  foreshorten  the  process. 

Need  for  Careful  Experiment. — There  was  about  the 
same  division  of  opinion  in  London  (1907)  at  the  Inter- 
national Congress  on  Moral  Education.  Some  believe 
we  must  teach  morals  directly  in  courses;  others  believe 
it  is  best  to  do  so  indirectly.  Some  wish  to  connect  morals 
with  special  religious  teaching;  others  wish  to  keep  the 
,two  entirely  distinct.  The  problem  of  moral  education 
in  the  schools  will  be  solved  when  we  have  local  experi- 
ments by  schools  furnishing  data  derived  from  experience 
with  definite  and  clearly  conceived  practices  which  differ. 
So  it  will  be  with  our  art  courses  in  the  school — courses 
which  are  not  natural  to  our  curriculum  thinking  as  yet. 
The  ideal  art  instruction  may  find  itself  in  some  manual 
training  connection,  or  as  a  great  many  others  are  think- 
ing now,  through  some  introduction  to  art  in  elementary 
courses  in  the  fine  arts.  Our  experimentation  and  tab- 


20  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ulated  results  will  decide  the  issue.  Again,  industrial 
courses  are  being  specifically  exploited  in  Massachu- 
setts, where  history  is  being  made.  This  should  save 
us  the  same  costly  experimentation.  In  Illinois,  agricult- 
ural education  is  having  a  free  field.  We  have  here 
but  to  observe  mistakes  to  avoid  them  and  effective 
policies  to  adopt  them.  It  is  pretty  likely  that  Berke- 
ley, California,  for  example,  can  give  us  data  with  re- 
gard to  the  wisdom  of  six-year  divisions  of  the  elemen- 
tary and  high  school. 

In  short,  ours  is  an  educational  era  of  adaptation  to 
local  demands  and  genuine  needs,  and  to  the  community 
appeal;  and  of  assumption  as  to  the  ability  and  inclina- 
tion of  the  community  to  appreciate.  The  consequent 
confusion,  disorganization,  and  dissatisfaction  are  a  nat- 
ural outcome,  but  not  a  permanent  condition  of  our 
present  stage  of  development. 

Model  Schools. — We  have  existing,  partly  for  this  ex- 
perimental purpose,  model  schools  now  in  different  parts 
of  the  world  which  take  a  radical  stand  in  order  to  develop 
some  new  feature  or  type  of  curriculum.  These  have 
been  in  some  disfavor  with  practical  schoolmen  because 
they  cannot  be  copied.  This  is  not  their  purpose.  The 
Rein  School  at  Jena  has  saved  time  for  thousands  of 
schools  by  fully  exploiting  refined  Herbartian  methods. 
The  J.  J.  Findlay  Demonstration  School  at  Manchester 
is  doing  the  same  thing  in  the  modern  languages  in  the 
elementary  grades,  as  well  as  in  other  untested  school 
branches.  The  model  school  of  the  Hyannis  Normal 
School  is  carrying  to  the  extreme  the  idea  of  reproducing 
a  miniature  democracy  in  the  school  society.  The  Mas- 
sachusetts industrial  schools  in  certain  towns,  through 
their  curriculums,  are  working  out  for  us  the  practical 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  21 

problem  of  adapting  all  institutions  to  local  needs  and 
specific  trade  demands.  In  no  other  way  could  we  see 
the  fruits  of  such  a  policy.  The  Ethical  Culture  School 
in  New  York  City,  and  the  Summer  School  for  Moral 
Education  in  Madison,  Wisconsin,  are  also  virtually  dem- 
onstration schools.  Samples  of  work  under  favorable 
conditions  must  be  done  to  test  the  method  of  direct  moral 
instruction.  The  Practice  School  of  the  University  of 
Missouri,  directed  by  J.  L.  Merriam,  is  an  institution 
which  superintendents  in  Missouri  do  not  find  themselves 
able  to  duplicate.  This  school  serves  other  purposes.  In 
the  April,  1909,  issue  of  the  Educational  Review  Merriam 
outlines  a  programme  of  studies  which  has  fascinating  pos- 
sibilities and  the  spirit  of  which  I  feel  sure  we  should  like 
to  duplicate  in  many  particulars,  and  yet  I  doubt  whether 
our  communities  could  accustom  themselves  to  support- 
ing schools  of  the  Merriam  type  yet.  His  programme  of 
studies  is  as  follows :  First  three  years,  playing  wholesome 
games,  discovering  interesting  and  profitable  things,  and 
making  useful  and  ornamental  things;  fourth  year,  local 
industries,  post-office,  laundry,  grocery,  dairy,  etc.;  fifth 
and  sixth  years,  industries  at  large,  as  lumbering,  mining, 
governing,  etc.;  and  the  seventh  year,  important  United 
States  industries.  This  is  not  an  industrial  school,  but 
an  elementary  school  with  a  vocational  flavor;  a  school 
where  real  child  motive  gets  free  play  and  where  large 
tasks  are  almost  unconsciously  done,  and  where  the 
curriculum  is  not  a  patchwork  of  studies.  I  refer  to 
Merriam's  elementary  school  because  it  is  a  good  sample 
of  what  is  meant  by  experimenting  with  a  programme  of 
studies  in  a  scientific  way. 

Suggestions  for  Reform  in  the  Curriculum. — These  re- 
forms described  above  are  practically  suggestions  for  a 


22  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

complete  change  of  front  in  curriculum-making.  Public 
school  machinery  and  public  school  forces  are  too  un- 
wieldy, however,  to  accomplish  any  such  right-about- 
face.  There  are  less  radical  proposals  which  embody 
practical  reforms  of  our  present  practice,  particularly 
those  aimed  at  high  school  reorganization.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Commission  on  Industrial  Education  furnishes 
samples  of  such  modifications  which  have  been  adopted 
at  Fitchburg,  Lynn,  and  Waltham.  Draper,  of  New 
York,  has  published  his  proposed  changes  for  the  ele- 
mentary work  throughout  the  State.  There  is  a  Na- 
tional Education  Association  committee  at  work  upon 
the  six-year  elementary  and  high  school  division.  In  the 
School  Review  for  March,  1909,  one  finds  in  an  article  by 
Charles  De  Garmo,  of  Cornell,  clear-cut  suggestions  for 
junior  industrial  high  schools.  Many  other  administrative 
schemes  for  special  curriculums  are  interesting  and  provo- 
cative of  speculation.  But  even  these  ingenious  policies 
are  partly  blundering  guesses,  not  expressions  of  settled 
conviction  nor  products  of  actual  experience.  The  real 
approach  to  the  curriculum  problems  for  our  future 
teachers  must  be  the  scholarly  one.  They  should  under- 
stand and  have  in  mind  samples  of  historical  courses  of 
study  and  curriculums.  They  should  be  able  to  appre- 
ciate the  social  bases  upon  which  these  have  rested. 
They  should  consult  various  types  of  model  curriculums. 
Furthermore,  they  should  be  able  to  articulate  for  them- 
selves the  modern  bases  upon  which  any  course  must  rest, 
particularly  their  own.  From  this  they  will  be  driven  to 
a  consideration  of  the  inter-relation  of  the  various  sub- 
jects in  the  programme.  Again,  no  high  school  teacher 
can  be  fully  proficient  without  definite  relations  to  his 
colleagues.  Most  inexperienced  high  school  teachers  at- 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  23 

tempt  to  do  their  work  with  reference  only  to  their  inter- 
ests in  a  detached  branch  of  study.  Instead  they  should 
be  conscious  professional  co-operators  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  whole  curriculum.  There  is  every  reason  why 
the  history  teacher,  the  language  teacher,  the  mathematics 
teacher,  and  the  science  teacher  should  make  specific 
efforts  to  articulate  the  distinctive  but  mutually  depend- 
ent functions  they  are  each  to  perform  in  the  educative 
process.  Here  professional  distinctiveness  and  pride  will 
produce  efficient  co-operation  and  insure  a  measure  of 
relatedness  hitherto  not  brought  into  the  service  for  unity 
of  aim  in  secondary  teaching. 

The  Variety  of  Curriculum  Problems. — Typical  per- 
plexities of  the  curriculum  are  easily  discovered.  One 
quickly  finds  certain  clear-cut  issues  prominent.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  model  outlines  for  the  high  school  pro- 
grammes of  studies  for  the  States  of  Illinois  and  Michigan 
and  for  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Boston  reveals  the 
following  interesting  educational  situation:  The  elective 
system  is  a  baffling  problem  everywhere.  None  have 
worked  it  out.  The  five-period-per-week  problem  is  dif- 
ferently solved  by  each  of  these  educational  bodies  of 
experts.  The  problem  of  adapting  the  course  to  the  sex 
.demands  is  only  partly  met.  The  problem  of  foreign 
languages,  ancient  and  modern,  is  differently  solved. 
Michigan  and  Illinois  both  are  more  conservative  in  the 
matter  of  ancient  languages.  Boston  and  New  York  are 
making  no  distinction  between  a  foreign  and  an  ancient 
language.  An  observant  critic  will  note  further  that  the 
material  for  English  courses  differs  in  required  content 
throughout.  He  will  note  that  grammar  in  these  four 
pamphlet  directions  appears  in  each  year  of  the  high 
school  in  turn  with  no  apparent  reason  in  any  case. 


24  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Mathematics  is  required  throughout  and  appears  to  offer 
a  point  of  general  agreement,  although  there  are  different 
theories  as  to  its  purpose,  method,  extent,  discipline,  text- 
books, and  as  to  whether  it  shall  be  chiefly  applied  or 
pure.  Differences  multiply  as  we  leave  the  field  of  exact 
science.  One  will  have  raised  in  this  examination  also 
the  question  as  to  whether  geography  should  be  a  com- 
mercial or  a  physical  subject.  Of  the  science  of  the 
curriculum,  there  is  no  general  agreement  as  to  how  we 
shall  sequentially  relate  botany,  zoology,  general  biology, 
physiology,  and  hygiene,  or  as  to  the  order  in  which  we 
shall  give  chemistry,  physics,  and  physiography.  Draw- 
ing seems  to  be  an  extra,  not  worth  college  credit  in  some 
cases,  and  not  rigid,  nor  difficult,  nor  systematic.  In  the 
foreign  languages  three  years  as  a  rule  seem  to  be  expected 
with  wide  election  provided  for  college  admission.  Vocal 
music  is  an  extra;  instrumental  music  is  a  school  subject 
that  has  a  questionable  status;  Illinois  suggests  agricult- 
ure throughout;  it  appears  in  the  programme  of  an  in- 
creasing number  of  schools  and  there  is  a  propaganda  in 
Michigan,  in  Kansas,  and  other  States  to  adopt  this  as  a 
State  policy.  Commercial  training  appears  throughout; 
domestic  training  seems  to  be,  for  the  girls,  a  substitute 
for  mathematics  and  physics.  Civics,  economics,  and 
American  history  are  agreed  upon  as  last,  year  subjects. 
As  to  how  to  conduct  the  history  throughout  the  high 
school,  there  is  little  consensus  in  these  four  schemes. 
History,  if  judged  by  required  schedule  hours,  is  rela- 
tively little  stressed  in  New  York.  These  are  conclusions 
from  a  mere  statistical  analysis  of  four  suggestive  pro- 
grammes. If  we  should  take  a  German  programme  we 
should  add  the  subject  of  religion;  if  we  should  take  a 
French  programme  we  should  find  a  course  in  morals 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  25 

with  religion  debarred.  In  either  we  should  note  more 
required  hours  and  less  elective,  we  should  note  more  of 
the  classical  flavor  to  the  curriculum,  and  we  should  see 
a  different  division  of  years  for  high  school  work. 

The  Basis  for  a  Reconstruction  of  the  Curriculum.— 
In  short,  schoolmen  are  driven  to  a  thorough-going  re- 
construction and  reclassification  of  our  standards  for 
educational  values  and  correlations.  I  quote  the  follow- 
ing from  Professor  William  Macdonald:1  "I  cannot  but 
think  that  the  public  high  school  has  to-day  legitimate 
ground  of  complaint  against  the  college,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  Broadly  speaking, 
our  college  entrance  requirements  are  both  too  high  and 
too  narrow.  In  the  attempt  to  protect  Greek,  for  ex- 
ample, high  school  Latin  has  been  sometimes  under- 
valued, especially  where  a  scheme  of  'units'  obtains. 
French  and  German  have  been  arbitrarily  reckoned  as 
of  less  worth  than  the  classics,  and  the  whole  scheme  of 
entrance  requirements  has  been  overweighed  with  lan- 
guage. The  alternatives  for  Greek  or  Latin  have  some- 
times been  less,  and  often  more,  difficult  to  offer  than  the 
language  itself;  while  work  in  physics  and  chemistry, 
though  done  in  school  laboratories  as  good  as  those  of 
.many  colleges,  and  under  teachers  of  sound  university 
training,  has  been  accepted  for  admission  only  to  be  re- 
jected after  admission.  The  entrance  history  require- 
ment seems  to  me  to  be,  for  the  majority  of  schools,  much 
too  difficult,  except  under  peculiarly  favorable  condi- 
tions. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  Eastern  colleges  have  been  very 
slow  to  accept,  and  for  the  most  part  have  declined  alto- 

1  Educational  Review,  January,  1911,  "The  Interest  of  the  Public  in 
the  College  Curriculum." 


26  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

gether  to  accept,  a  number  of  subjects  which  legitimate 
public  demand  has  introduced  into  many  high  schools, 
and  which  I  am  constrained  to  believe  are  as  well  taught 
as  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  Such  subjects  as 
physical  and  commercial  geography,  industrial  history, 
modern  European  history,  American  civil  government, 
household  chemistry,  and  manual  and  industrial  training 
are  not  generally  accepted  as  entrance  subjects;  or,  if 
they  are,  are  commonly  taken  at  a  'unit'  value  less  than 
they  actually  stand  for  in  the  work  of  the  student.  They 
are  not,  in  other  words,  quite  respectable. 

"  Unquestionably,  there  are  disparities  and  maladjust- 
ments here  that  ought  not  to  be  continued.  The  widen- 
ing range  of  high  school  studies,  due  to  the  public  de- 
mand that  tax-supported  schools  shall  give  adequate  prep- 
aration for  life,  together  with  the  increasing  dependence 
of  the  college  upon  the  high  school,  rather  than  upon 
private  schools,  for  its  students,  makes  imperative  a 
broader  basis  of  admission  to  college,  if  a  gulf  between  the 
two  classes  of  institutions  is  not  to  become  fixed.  Not, 
let  me  repeat,  that  the  college  must  accept  everything 
done  in  a  high  school  as  a  suitable  preparation  for  col- 
lege, or  that  every  high  school  course  is  to  be  accepted  by 
the  college  irrespective  of  its  content.  I  do  not  myself 
see  how  the  college  can  ever  regard  dressmaking,  cook- 
ing, stenography,  typewriting,  book-keeping,  or  sight- 
singing  as  substantive  elements  in  college  preparation, 
on  which  later  cultural  courses  can  be  built;  or  how  it 
can  surrender  to  the  schools  the  function  of  determining 
what  the  entrance  requirements  shall  be.  The  demand 
that  any  high  school  course  anywhere  shall  admit  to  any 
college  course  anywhere  seems  to  me  preposterous,  both 
practically  and  educationally.  But  we  must  certainly 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  27 

broaden  the  road  a  good  deal  if  the  school  and  college 
are  to  continue,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  to  do  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  country;  and  we  need  not  fear  lest  a 
broad  road  lead  us  to  destruction. 

"To  be  specific:  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  the  col- 
leges generally  must  make  up  their  minds,  as  some  have 
already  done,  to  insist  upon  but  one  foreign  language, 
ancient  or  modern,  instead  of  two  or  three,  for  admission; 
provided  always  that  the  language  offered  has  been 
taught  long  enough  and  well  enough  to  insure  on  the  part 
of  the  student  real  mastery  of  it,  real  ability  to  use  it. 
Again,  the  college  must  bring  itself  to  abandon  a  protec- 
tive tariff  on  traditional  subjects,  whether  Greek  or  any 
other,  and  cease  to  display  'alternatives'  which  are  not 
at  least  time  equivalents.  It  ought  to  increase  the  'unit' 
value  of  history,  or  else  decrease  the  period  to  be  covered; 
and  it  certainly  ought  to  make  room  for  industrial  his- 
tory and  the  history  of  modern  Europe.  It  cannot  con- 
tinue to  discount  the  high  school  work  in  science,  when 
courses  cover  the  same  ground  and  are  done  under  as 
satisfactory  conditions  as  corresponding  courses  in  col- 
lege. And  it  must  accept  sound,  well-ordered,  and  well- 
taught  courses  in  geography,  American  government,  in- 
dustrial training,  and  other  equally  worthy  subjects. 
The  adoption  of  all  these  changes  would  in  no  way 
jeopardize  the  scholarship  of  the  college,  or  deprive  it  of 
the  control  which  it  ought  to  have  over  its  own  stand- 
ards, or  take  from  it  any  means  it  now  possesses  of  keep- 
ing out  the  unfit.  It  certainly  would  not  'put  the  colleges 
at  the  mercy  of  the  schools.' ' 

Here  we  have  college  opinion  falling  in  line  with  the 
evident  tendencies  in  the  developments  of  secondary 
education,  and  we  have  here  also  a  frank  recognition  of 


28  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  necessity  that  this  education  find  itself  more  com- 
pletely through  more  clearly  conceiving  the  educational 
possibilities  inherent  in  the  materials  of  instruction. 

The  High  School  of  the  Future. — The  general  features 
of  our  future  public  high  school,  "the  people's  college," 
have  been  summed  up  by  A.  F.  Lange  l  as  follows: 

"  The  need  of  vital  continuity  and  flexibility  is  that  of 
enlarging  the  girth  of  secondary  education.  Its  cultural 
mission,  to  begin  with,  can  no  longer  be  fulfilled  through 
the  so-called  culture  studies  alone.  Little  by  little  we 
shall  doubtless  learn  to  teach  mathematics  and  the 
sciences,  history  and  civics,  literature  and  the  languages 
so  as  to  start  with  actual  life  for  knowing  and  to  come 
back  to  it  for  doing,  but  even  then  we  cannot  wisely  leave 
out  the  subjects  that  specifically  epitomize  the  economic 
activities  of  our  contemporary  civilization  and  lead  over 
to  the  material  side  of  the  world's  work.  What  life  has 
ceased  to  give  the  school  must  supply  and  improve  upon. 
Quite  apart  from  vocational  issues,  efficient  citizenship, 
the  very  heart  of  liberal  culture  from  the  view-point  of 
Democracy,  demands  nowadays  a  trinity  of  developed 
senses — a  vivid  historic  sense,  the  scientific  evolutional 
sense,  and  a  practical  economic  sense.  It  implies  that 
neither  those  who  can  and  will  prolong  their  school 
careers  nor  those  who  must  cut  them  short  should  be 
deprived  of  the  chance  to  get  and  keep  in  active,  intelli- 
gent, sympathetic  touch  with  the  work  and  the  workers 
of  our  farms,  our  industries,  our  commerce.  Accord- 
ingly, no  high  school  is  fully  adequate  to  its  cultural 
purposes  until  it  has  a  department  of  agriculture,  or  of 
commerce,  or  of  the  mechanical  and  domestic  arts,  a 

1  University  of  California  Chronicle,  vol.  XII,  No.  4,  "  Self -Directed 
High  School  Development." 


CURRENT  DEMANDS  29 

department  accessible  not  only  to  the  incurables  but  to 
every  student,  a  department  in  charge  of  teachers,  every 
whit  as  broadly  and  thoroughly  trained  and  as  civilized 
as  those  of  other  departments — ought  to  be.  The  univer- 
sities must  further  this  development  by  training  teachers 
and  by  welcoming  the  student  who  has  had  the  good  fort- 
une or  good  sense  to  choose  some  of  the  courses  in  ap- 
plied knowledge  along  with  the  rest.  Sweetness  and  light 
and  overalls  are  a  perfectly  feasible  and  very  effective 
combination.  .  .  .  American  communities  will  have  to 
create  more  vocational  schools  than  hitherto  of  second- 
ary grade.  In  the  interest,  however,  of  both  the  individ- 
ual and  of  the  common  weal  our  educational  expansion 
must  be  guided  by  three  principles.  First,  no  technical 
school  must  be  so  narrow  in  aim  and  scope  as  to  cheat  the 
pupil  out  of  his  heritage  of  race  culture  as  embodied  in 
language  and  the  institutional  achievements  of  his  people. 
Second,  no  cultural  high  school  must  be  allowed  to  be- 
come so  narrow  in  aim  and  scope  as  to  deprive  its  pupils 
of  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  economic  sense  and 
of  finding  themselves  and  their  fellowmen  by  many-sided 
doing,  related  directly  at  one  point  or  another  to  the  busi- 
ness, or  the  agriculture,  or  the  industries  of  the  nation. 
Third,  other  things  being  equal,  the  surest  guarantee  of 
living  together  in  the  bonds  of  peace  and  of  advancing 
together  on  the  road  of  national  destiny  is  the  co-educa- 
tion of  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  young  people,  and  the 
longer  they  can  be  kept  together  the  better  for  them  and 
the  general  welfare  when  their  turn  comes  to  constitute 
the  people,  the  State.  .  .  . 

"What  the  American  college  of  two  or  three  genera- 
tions ago  did  for  the  few,  the  American  high  school  is 
called  upon  to  do  for  the  many,  only  more  adequately. 


30  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  notch  reached  by  the  college  before  the  latter  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  should  be  the  high  school  teachers' 
starting-point  for  measuring  high  school  efficiency.  .  .  . 
Called  and  chosen  to  represent  and  serve  the  nation 
through  an  institution  of  this  character,  high  school 
men  and  women,  self-conscious  of  their  trust,  will  not 
fail  to  see  that  a  secondary  teacher  must  no  longer  be  a 
second-hand  teacher.  We  all  know,  of  course,  how  fatal 
to  all  concerned  it  is  when  a  university  specialist  runs 
amuck  among  high  schools.  But  hari  kari  is  dangerous, 
too,  and  this  the  would-be  modern  high  school  com- 
mits whose  teachers  cannot  stand  up  alone  in  twentieth 
century  scholarship  and  culture.  Ideally,  only  the  best 
scholar-teachers  are  really  good  enough  for  the  high 
school.  Only  they  can  make  it  what  it  should  be,  the 
cultural  centre  of  every  community.  Only  they  can 
really  emancipate  the  high  school,  keep  out  pseudo- 
university  practices,  and  at  the  same  time  assist  the  univer- 
sities in  the  exercise  of  their  chief  function,  which  is  not 
to  act  as  an  authority  over  anybody  or  anything,  but  to 
train  young  men  and  women  to  become  their  own  author- 
ities." 


CHAPTER   II 

THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  OP  COURSES  OF  STUDY 
CHARLES  HUGHES  JOHNSTON 

Twofold  Purpose  of  a  Course  of  Study. — It  may  have 
seemed  to  the  less  conservative  readers  of  the  preceding 
chapter  that  the  practical  considerations  there  adduced 
as  genuine  and  urgent  constitute  a  sufficient  basis  for 
our  high  school  programme  of  studies.  To  the  more 
conservative  readers  these  considerations  have  doubtless 
seemed  ineffectual  substitutes  for  what  one  should  regard 
as  the  permanent  and  respectable  aims  of  secondary 
education.  Either  of  these  conclusions  would  be  a  mis- 
construction. The  purpose  of  the  course  of  study  is  two- 
fold; to  embody  content  best  adapted  to  immediate  social 
and  economic  requirements;  and  to  select  subject-matter 
also  with  reference  to  our  ability  to  use  it  best  educa- 
tionally, that  is,  to  make  it  over  into  life  disciplines,  into 
effectual  habits  and  desirable  mental  traits. 

Disciplinary  Aspect  of  Education. — The  other  side  of 
the  case  must  hence  receive  just  as  careful  consideration. 
Education  would  appear  to  lose  a  vital  characteristic  if 
we  ignore  its  purely  disciplinary,  its  traditionally  honored 
function.  This  we  have  in  great  measure  tended  of  late 
to  ignore.  The  cry  for  high  school  freedom  from  domi- 
nation, even  when  justified,  has  carried  with  it  the  tone 
of  impatience  in  directing  mental  processes  all  of  which 

31 


32  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

must  be  slowly,  painstakingly,  and  expertly  supervised  if 
they  are  to  be  permanently  worth  while.  Indolent  and 
careless  intellectual  attitudes,  superficiality  and  lack  of 
thoroughness  or  of  finished  knowledge  of  a  few  funda- 
mental subjects,  inability  and  disinclination  to  think 
an  issue  or  a  problem  through  to  its  minute  details,  half- 
way racings  into  utilitarian  fields,  a  tendency  to  tackle 
anything  but  the  "trunk  of  the  curricula,"  "novelty 
specifics"  in  which  pedagogical  mastery  of  the  new 
material  is  not  assured,  all  characterize  questionable 
traits  in  high  school  graduates  and  suggest  that  we  must 
regain  our  faith  in  the  ultimate  values  and  permanent 
results  of  drilled  training  such  as  some  of  the  older  dis- 
ciplines and  traditional  models  seem  still  uniquely  to 
afford. 

That  this  may  not  seem  too  severe  an  arraignment 
of  much  current  high  school  work  one  should  read  the 
Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching,  particularly  the  impartial 
and  kindly  but  incisive  critical  comments  of  a  Prussian 
exchange  teacher  and  of  many  Oxford  tutors  who  speak 
freshly  from  pedagogical  experience  with  select  groups 
of  American  youths.  If  this  conviction,  that  we  need  in 
America  a  general  stiffening  up  in  methods  of  intellectual 
disciplines,  be  not  beside  the  mark,  it  becomes  the  duty 
of  high  school  teachers  to  face  squarely  this  problem  of 
conditions  for  effective  discipline,  physical,  intellectual, 
and  temperamental. 

Modifications  of  the  Ideal  of  Literal  Discipline  and 
Automatism. — Yet  one  may  not  declare  too  baldly  this 
disciplinary  programme  for  modern  teachers.1  It  has 

1  For  a  most  violent  attack  upon  the  very  principle  at  stake  here  consult 
the  tirade  by  Dr.  Boris  Sidis  in  his  recent  book,  "Philistine  and  Genius." 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  33 

dreary  historic  associations,  implies  a  superimposition 
of  unnatural  tasks  upon  spontaneous  curiosity,  and 
reminds  us  of  the  painful  and  laborious  literalness  of 
memoriter  performances  once  called  "learning  the  les- 
son," or  the  "coming  to  books"  of  the  old  pedagogue 
days.  There  have  been  many  attempts  to  restate  the 
core  of  disciplinary  education  in  softer  and  more  attractive 
phrasing.  Rousseau  and  even  Tolstoi  and  Nietzsche 
have  made  the  attempt.  In  a  recent  essay  on  the  "  Social 
Value  of  the  College-Bred"  the  late  William  James  has 
summed  up  the  goal  of  the  educative  process  to  be  that 
of  equipping  students  with  trained  insight  into  and  ap- 
preciation of  the  essentially  human  qualities,  "  the  know- 
ing of  good  men  when  we  see  them."  Dewey  would 
make  most  prominent  the  aim  of  "socializing"  our  stu- 
dents by  persisently  selecting  subject-matter  and  method 
with  reference  to  their  value  in  developing  these  social 
traits.  Jastrow,  in  his  late  book  on  "  Qualities  of  Men," 
attempts  inconclusively  to  restate  educational  aims  and 
values,  but  hovers  vaguely  around  some  indefinite  aesthetic 
goal.  His  result  is  unfortunately  not  tangible  enough 
for  actual  guidance.  We  may  condemn  or  praise  it  by 
calling  it  "suggestive."  Osborn  in  his  "Huxley  and 
Education"  is  clearer.  He  would  have  us  aim  at  de- 
veloping in  our  students  "constructive  thinking,"  specu- 
lative ability,  generalizing  power,  facility  in  solving  in- 
tellectual problems  and  in  initiating  intellectual  research. 
This  is  perhaps  beyond  our  high  school  students.  Rowe, 
in  a  book  important  for  schoolmen,  "Habit  Formation 
and  the  Science  of  Teaching,"  would  have  us  analyze 
exhaustively  our  subject-matter  with  reference  to  possi- 
bilities in  it  for  initiating  and  refining  specific  habit  proc- 
esses. This  treatment  of  the  subject  is  well  done  and 


34  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

from  a  single  psychological  point  of  view  satisfactory. 
All  of  these  represent  plausible  attacks  upon  the  problem 
under  discussion,  differing  in  some  points  of  emphasis 
from  the  purely  disciplinary  one  upon  which  this  chapter 
must  focus. 

Illustrations  of  the  Need  for  a  Thoroughgoing  Refor- 
mulation of  the  Doctrine  of  Discipline. — The  following 
extracts  from  brilliant  but  perhaps  tempermentally  par- 
tisan statements  of  our  educational  demand  represent 
what  part,  in  varying  degrees  of  emphasis,  mere  individual 
opinion  and  conviction  play  in  literary  treatments  of  our 
problem.  They  illustrate  further  the  urgent  need  that 
teachers  work  out  the  more  fundamental  question  which 
the  conflict  of  aims  here  shown  seems  to  call  for.  The 
reader  may  well  attempt  to  articulate  an  ideal  which 
will  harmonize  or  supplant  those  quoted  herewith: 

You  have  heard  the  psychologizing  educator  advise  the  formation 
of  good,  fixed,  stable  habits  in  early  life.  Now  I  want  to  warn  you 
against  the  dangers  of  such  unrestricted  advice.  Fixed  adaptations, 
stable  habits,  tend  to  raise  the  thresholds  of  mental  life,  tend  to  in- 
hibit the  liberation,  the  output  of  reserve  energy.  Avoid  routine. 
Do  not  let  your  pupils  fall  into  the  ruts  of  habits  and  customs.  Do 
not  let  even  the  best  of  habits  harden  beyond  the  point  of  further 
possible  modification. 

Where  there  is  a  tendency  toward  formation  of  over -abundant 
mental  cartilage,  set  your  pupils  to  work  under  widely  different 
circumstances.  Confront  them  with  a  changed  set  of  conditions. 
Keep  them  on  the  move.  Surprise  them  by  some  apparently  para- 
doxical relations  and  strange  phenomena.  Do  not  let  them  settle 
down  to  one  definite  set  of  actions  or  reactions.  Remember  that 
rigidity,  like  sclerosis,  induration  of  tissue,  means  decay  of  originality, 
destruction  of  man's  genius.  With  solidified  and  unvariable  habits 
not  only  does  the  reserve  energy  become  entirely  inaccessible,  but 
the  very  individuality  is  extinguished. 

Do  not  make  of  our  children  a  nation  of  philistines.     Why  say, 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  35 

you  make  man  in  your  own  image?  Do  not  make  your  schools 
machine-shops,  turning  out  on  one  uniform  pattern  so  much  medi- 
ocrity per  year.  Cultivate  variability.  The  tendency  toward  varia- 
bility is  the  most  precious  part  of  a  good  education.  Beware  of  the 
philistine  with  his  set,  stable  habits. 

The  important  principle  in  education  is  not  so  much  Formation 
of  habits  as  the  power  of  their  Re-formation.  The  power  of  breaking 
up  habits  is  by  far  the  more  essential  factor  of  a  good  education.  It 
is  in  this  power  of  breaking  down  habits  that  we  can  find  the  key 
for  the  unlocking  of  the  otherwise  inaccessible  stores  of  subconscious 
reserve  energy.  The  cultivation  of  the  power  of  habit-disintegration 
is  what  constitutes  the  proper  education  of  man's  genius. — (Boris 
Sidis,  "Philistine  and  Genius,"  1911.) 

Eleutheromania  may  be  defined  as  the  instinct  to  throw  off  not 
simply  outer  and  artificial  limitations,  but  all  limitations  whatsoever. 
.  .  .  Society  is  plainly  suffering  from  a  lack  rather  than  a  super- 
abundance of  discipline  and  restraint.  Many  of  the  greatest  of  our 
modern  artists,  Hugo,  Wagner,  Ibsen,  etc.,  have  been  eleutheroma- 
niacs.  For  over  a  century  the  world  has  been  fed  on  a  steady  diet  of 
revolt.  Everybody  is  becoming  tinged  with  eleutheromania,  taken 
up  with  his  rights  rather  than  with  his  duties,  more  and  more  unwill- 
ing to  accept  limitations.  .  .  . 

One  of  these  results  (of  the  drift  toward  a  naturalistic  conception 
of  life)  has  been  a  weakening  of  the  idea  of  a  law  for  human  nature  as 
something  distinct  from  the  law  for  physical  nature.  "There  are 
two  laws,  discrete,  not  reconciled,"  says  Emerson — "Law  for  man, 
.  and  law  for  thing."  But  for  the  pure  naturalist  there  is  only  one  law 
— the  law  for  thing.  Now  any  one  who  thus  identifies  man  with 
phenomenal  nature,  whether  scientifically  or  sentimentally,  is  almost 
inevitably  led  to  value  only  the  virtues  of  expansion;  for,  according 
to  natural  law,  to  grow  is  to  expand.  .  .  .  The  sentimental  naturalist 
wishes  to  expand  emotionally,  and  is  averse  to  anything  that  would 
set  a  bound  to  emotion.  The  scientific  naturalist  would  go  on  in- 
creasing forever  in  knowledge  and  power,  and  eyes  askance  anything 
that  seems  to  fix  limits  to  this  increase. 

Yet  in  spite  of  the  naturalists,  scientific  and  sentimental,  we  must 
insist  not  only  that  there  is  a  law  for  man  as  well  as  a  law  for  thing, 
but  that  the  actual  reason  may  be  given  why  the  two  laws  are  dis- 


36  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

crete  and  unreconciled.    If  man  as  a  natural  phenomenon  grows  by 
expanding,  man  as  a  man  grows  by  concentrating.  .  .  . 

The  chief  use  of  any  widening  out  of  knowledge  and  sympathy 
must  be  to  prepare  man  more  fully  for  the  supreme  moment  of  con- 
centration and  selection,  the  moment  when  he  exercises  his  own 
special  faculties.  Now,  to  select  rightly  a  man  must  have  right 
standards,  and  to  have  right  standards  means  in  practice  that  he  must 
constantly  set  bounds  to  his  own  impulses.  Man  grows  in  the  per- 
fection proper  to  his  own  nature  in  almost  direct  ratio  to  his  growth  in 
restraint  and  self-control. — (Irving  Babbitt,  "The  New  Laocoon," 
1910.) 

Even  William  James,  whose  treatment  of  "Habit"  is 
a  psychological  classic,  describes  Thomas  Davidson  ap- 
provingly thus: 

He  avoided  stated  hours  of  work  on  principle.  Reprehending 
(mildly)  a  certain  chapter  of  my  own  on  "Habit,"  he  said  that  it  was 
a  fixed  rule  with  him  to  form  no  regular  habits.  When  he  found  him- 
self in  danger  of  settling  into  even  a  good  one,  he  made  a  point  of  inter- 
rupting it.  Habits  and  methods  make  a  prisoner  of  a  man,  destroy 
his  readiness,  keep  him  from  answering  the  call  of  the  fresh  moment. 
Individualist  a  entrance,  Davidson  felt  that  every  hour  was  an  unique 
entity,  to  whose  claims  one  should  lie  open.  .  .  .  Life  must  be  flexi- 
ble. You  ask  for  a  free  man,  and  these  Utopias  give  you  an  "inter- 
changeable part"  with  a  fixed  number  in  a  rule-bound  organism. 
The  real  thing  to  aim  at  is  liberation  of  the  inner  interests.  Give 
a  man  possession  of  a  soul,  and  he  will  work  out  his  own  happi- 
ness under  any  set  of  conditions. — (William  James,  "Memories  and 
Studies,"  1911.)  . 

Theory  of  Formal  Discipline. — The  discussions,  in- 
vestigations, and  experimental  tests  of  the  possibilities 
of  transfer  of  training  of  the  last  two  decades,  known  as 
the  Formal  Discipline  Controversy,  constitute  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  educational  theorizing.  These  seemed 
to  strike  at  the  root  of  all  former  faiths  in  general  edu- 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  37 

cation.  There  is  little,  however,  in  the  entire  outcome 
thus  far  which  is  reassuring.  We  have  neither  proved 
nor  disproved  the  formal  discipline  dogma.  Probably 
no  bald  theory  of  inevitable  and  definite  results  of  specific 
intellectual  exercises  ever  existed  in  the  mind  of  any 
thoughtful  educator.  If  we  study  the  great  formulations 
of  educational  theory  by  Plato,  Locke,  Rousseau,  or 
Spencer,  we  shall  find  it  uncritical  to  pin  them  down  as 
adherents  or  opponents  to  a  specifically  stated  doctrine  of 
discipline.  They  qualify  conditions  and  modify  the  likeli- 
hood of  definite  spread  of  effects. 

The  following  rough  diagram  may  help  indicate  how 
curriculum  makers  can,  however,  scarcely  escape  framing 
courses  of  study  with  reference  to  a  partially  articulate 
conviction  as  to  how  permanent  effects  of  discipline,  or 
spread  of  training,  may  be  secured.  The  long  vertical 
dividing  line  may  represent  the  point  of  the  student's 
passage  from  school  training  into  life.  The  horizontal 
line  or  lines  on  the  left  may  represent  the  degree  of  re- 
liance upon  one  or  more  general  or  partially  specific  dis- 
ciplines which  may  "spread"  or  become  concentrated  in 
later  life  pursuits  for  which  the  system  in  question  pro- 
vides. The  more  of  these  lines  we  find  the  less  the 
reliance  placed  in  any  absolute  theory  of  Formal  Dis- 
cipline. The  lines  on  the  right  of  the  vertical  represent 
the  measure  of  conscious  adaptation  to  those  vocations 
and  professions  in  the  practice  of  which  school  disci- 
plines are  supposed  to  be  essentials.  The  fewer  of  these 
lines  the  less  democratic  the  system.  The  actual  num- 
ber of  horizontal  lines  has  no  significance  beyond  indi- 
cating relative  degrees  of  special  provision  for  prepara- 
tory and  distinctive  mental  discipline  and  for  life.  The 
original  Socratic  method,  Fig.  I,  and  by  inference  the 


38 


I.     Socrates 


II.    Plato. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

TRAINING  LIFE  PURSUITS 

Dialectic 


Gymnastics 


Quadrivium 


[.  Middle  Ages... 


Mathematics 


IV.  Classical  School... 


V.    Spencer.. 


VI.  19th  Century  Schools - 


Complex  Curriculum 


Specific  Discipline 


VII .  20th  Century  Schools  . 


Philosophe 


X^N Soldler_ 

S^        Artisan 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  39 

course  of  study  the  Greek  sage  had  in  mind,  stand  per- 
haps as  our  most  extreme  example  of  faith  in  the  spread 
of  a  specific  discipline.  One  method,  dialectic,  or  skill 
in  oral  extraction  of  principle  from  the  concrete  subject 
in  hand,  and  one  subject-matter,  topics  with  moral  impli- 
cations inherent,  constitute  what  to  us  now  seem  to  be 
rather  meagre  materials  for  curriculum  construction. 
Plato's  system,  Fig.  II,  the  most  clearly  articulated 
course  of  study  in  the  history  of  education,  embodies  an 
explicit  recognition  of  the  limits  of  formal  training.  Two 
great  types  of  training,  the  mental  with  a  dominant 
speculative  emphasis,  and  the  physical,  the  body  as  a 
gracefully  expressive  medium,  are  distinguished.  Many 
subtypes  are  allowed  for.  In  addition  to  this  there  is 
recognized  only  one  chief  product,  the  making  of  the 
philosopher  statesman.  The  by-products  of  his  type  of 
training,  however,  constitute  our  chief  concern,  the  prac- 
tical training  of  ordinary  and  moderately  gifted  folk  who 
constitute  the  body  politic  of  our  democracy.  The  in- 
tellectualized  and  dehumanized  quadrivium  and  trivium 
framework,  Fig.  Ill,  or  the  arithmetic,  geometry,  astrono- 
my, and  music,  and  the  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic 
regime  of  barren  formalism  and  stereotyped  procedure, 
blind  to  the  rich  variety  of  social  forces  and  functions  and 
needs,  remains  still  historically  an  important  era  for  the 
student  of  the  history  of  the  evolution  of  disciplinary  con- 
ceptions of  education.  Likewise,  the  old  classical  culture 
curriculum,  Fig.  IV,  is  indicative  of  an  era  in  the  same 
history  of  educational  thought. 

The  necessity  of  distinctive  disciplines  and  the  con- 
sequent pressure  of  dominant  professions  make  any 
unqualified  faith  in  the  value  of  one  general  discipline 
practically,  if  not  theoretically,  untenable  in  this  eigh- 


40  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

teenth  century.  The  greatest,  boldest,  and  most  open 
attack  upon  traditional  methods  of  devising  courses  of 
study — after  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi,  who  make  their 
powerful  fight  for  a  renovation  of  spirit  throughout  the 
course  rather  than  a  positive  reconstruction  of  its  content 
— comes  from  Herbert  Spencer.  He  is  the  champion  of 
the  scientific  formulation  of  the  purposes  of  the  course  ac- 
cording to  well  understood  and  commercially  acceptable 
standards.  No  framer  of  a  curriculum  for  secondary 
education  should  undertake  his  task  without  a  thorough- 
going critical  analysis — and,  I  venture  to  add,  a  rejection 
— of  Spencerian  principles.  Fig.  V  represents,  from  this 
point  of  view,  Spencer's  underlying  doctrine,  his  deference 
to  the  practical  demands  of  various  vocations.  It  likewise 
shows  how  naively  Spencer  is  caught  by  the  very  fallacy 
he  strikes  at  in  others.  He  champions  narrowly  and 
consistently  a  one-type  training,  the  inculcation  of  an 
impartial,  depersonalized  scientific  attitude.  Every  sub- 
ject in  his  proposed  curriculum  functions  for  the  same 
monotonous  purpose.  It  is  merely  a  substitution  of  one 
extreme  type  of  formal  discipline  for  another,  the  scientific 
for  the  classical-linguistic.  It  is  well  adapted,  as  Royce 
has  observed,  to  the  production  of  "little  Herberts."  It 
presaged,  however,  later  developments,  and  we  to-day 
inherit,  though  inarticulately,  and  even  unconsciously, 
many  elements  of  this  and  of  the  other  types  sketched 
above.  The  next  working  conception  represented  in  the 
diagram  by  Fig.  VI  is  a  blind  and  in  great  measure  un- 
satisfactory compromise.  Specific  disciplines,  a  qualified 
acceptance  of  likely  but  limited  transfer  of  training, 
characterize  the  points  of  view  of  the  leaders  in  second- 
ary education  of  the  generation  just  past.  The  last 
illustration,  if  we  add  indefinitely  to  the  lines  drawn  on 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  41 

either  side  in  Fig.  VII,  may  indicate  the  absurd  extreme 
to  which  we  may  be  led  if  we  discard  disciplinary  con- 
ceptions altogether  and  seek  to  furnish  literal  training 
for  the  merely  mechanical  processes  called  for  in  the 
various  life  pursuits. 

Transference  of  Skill. — In  a  general  discussion  of  this 
character  one  cannot  fairly  raise  all  the  intricate  and 
problematic  psychological  issues  involved  in  the  ques- 
tion of  how  one  kind  of  skill  or  facility  acquired  in  a 
particular  branch  of  study,  Latin  for  example,  may  later 
in  life  become  transformed  into  expertness  and  more 
generalized  control  of  faculties  in  a  different  kind  of 
activity  and  in  a  different  environment.  One  must  go 
now  fortunately  to  the  sources.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
validity  of  the  dogma  of  discipline  was  seriously  denied 
has  put  the  whole  question  of  the  theoretical  and  scien- 
tific bases  of  the  curriculum  upon  an  experimental  foot- 
ing. Adherents  and  opponents  of  the  doctrine  have  been 
forced  to  resort  to  demonstrations,  to  conduct  extended 
investigations,  and  to  plan  for  experimental  tests  under 
reliable  control  conditions.  The  issue  has  cleared  away 
obstructions  and  put  a  premium  upon  clearly  articulate 
ideals.  Already  we  mark  the  inevitable  passing  of  a 
strictly  faculty  psychology — the  pseudo-scientific  support 
of  the  ancient  doctrine.  The  burden  of  proof  is  now 
placed  upon  those  who  can  ascribe  no  specific  disciplines 
to  their  courses.  From  this  theoretical  commotion  has 
come  better  reasons  for  the  incorporation  of  even  mathe- 
matics or  the  classics  in  our  courses.  It  has  ushered  in 
an  era  of  healthy  school-room  experimentation.  Psy- 
chological insight  into  the  complex  elements  involved  in 
the  simplest  acts  of  memory,  or  attention,  or  learning,  or 
habit  forming  and  habit  breaking,  has  revealed,  for 


42  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  better  professionally  trained  high  school  teacher,  the 
unreliability  of  a  traditionally  final  and  mysterious  atti- 
tude toward  the  educative  process.  In  the  tentative  con- 
clusions thus  far  reached  as  the  results  of  experiment  it 
seems  to  have  been  established  that  there  are  degrees  of 
inevitable  loss  in  transfer,  and  that  conditions  for  these 
degrees  of  transfer  may  be  defined  with  some  assurance. 
There  has  also  come  about  naturally  in  this  way  the 
recognition  that  a  teacher  must  define  with  more  analytic 
insight  just  what  traits  or  habits  or  attitudes  he  may 
safely  seek  to  inculcate  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
distinctive  subject-matter  of  his  course.1  We  may  safely 
predict  that  the  upshot  of  this  educational  ferment  as  to 
disciplinary  values  of  particular  subjects  will  be  the  appear- 
ance shortly  of  treatises  dealing  with  the  psychologically 
distinctive  values  of  all  seriously  proposed  subjects  for  the 
high  school  course.  The  following  chapters  of  this  book 
represent  an  attempt  to  meet  this  anticipated  demand. 

The  chief  urgency  that  schoolmen  ground  themselves  in 
the  incipient  stages  of  this  controversy  is,  not  only  that  they 
may  gain  assurance  as  to  the  ultimate  theoretical  position 
to  take,  but  that  they  may  share  constructively  in  the  work 
of  recording  relevant  observations  and  demonstrated  re- 
sults, and  that  they  may  in  this  way  add  their  influence 
and  moral  support  to  the  effort  to  establish  secondary 
teaching  on  a  dignified  and  scientific  professional  basis. 

Experiments  in  Transfer  of  Skill. — The  experimental 
investigations  thus  far  have  been  in  the  main  severely 
technical  and  under  conditions  only  remotely  analogous 
to  those  of  the  school-room.  Thorndike's  and  Wood- 
worth's  earlier  work  and  even  the  pioneer  tests  for  spread 

1  For  a  good  discussion  of  the  amplifications  of  this  statement  the 
reader  may  consult  S.  S.  Colvin's  "The  Learning  Process,"  1911. 


THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  43 

of  memory  effects  of  Ebbinghaus  and  of  James,  the  tests 
devised  by  Scripture  and  Davis,  and  the  learning  curves  of 
Bryan  and  Harter,  Swift,  Book,  Ruger,  and  others  where 
transfer  is  in  question — all  seem  to  have  dealt  with  more  or 
less  mechanical  and  literal  acquisitions  of  skill.  Where 
little  or  no  transfer  or  even  loss  of  transfer  of  skill  acquired 
in  the  specified  training  resulted,  we  have  tests  under 
conditions  which  are  neither  natural  nor  desirable  in 
school  work.  The  investigations  of  Meumann  and  even 
more  the  recent  work  of  Winch,  although  their  results 
are  meagre  and  questionable,  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
tendency  now  is  to  make  the  school-room  an  educational 
laboratory.1  This  is  par  excellence,  then,  the  school- 
man's scientific  problem:  How  demonstrate  the  best 
conditions  for  the  transference  into  permanent  personal 
attitudes  of  the  specific  habits  we,  through  our  chosen 
subject-matter,  may  bring  about? 

The  first  step  for  the  teacher  will  be  to  enumerate  and 
tabulate,  exhaustively  and  discriminatingly,  two  lists  of 
actual  or  possible  student  habits;  first,  those  we  seek  to 
eradicate;  and  second,  those  we  may  reasonably  seek  to 
inculcate  by  a  systematic,  scientific,  and  artful  method, 
planned  to  extend  over  periods  of  months,  and  not  merely 
to.be  started  by  broken  recitation  doses.  Habits  in  the 
broad  sense  of  attitudes  of  mind,  methods  of  study,  sanity 
and  prudence  of  judgment,  accuracy  of  statement,  and 
nicety  of  discrimination  must  be  idealized  and  specifi- 
cally practiced  under  skilful  teacher  guidance.  The 
laws  of  learning,  the  technique  and  complexity  and  per- 
sonal intimacy  and  pervasiveness  of  practically  all  habits, 

1  Colvin  reports,  in  the  book  already  referred  to,  that  he  has  insti- 
tuted tests  of  various  sorts  under  school-room  conditions,  and  that  his 
results  are  to  be  published. 


44  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

constitute  a  superb  challenge  to  the  teacher.  These  and 
myriads  of  similar  problems  are  all  wrapped  up  in  this 
inevitable  question  of  how  we  may  more  intelligently 
subject  all  our  ideals  and  technical  devices  to  constant 
scrutiny,  -and  how  patiently  we  must  persevere  in  our 
attempts  to  choose  the  meatiest  content  at  command  and 
transform  it  through  our  unescapable  disciplinary  func- 
tion into  student  acquisitions  which  will  bear  the  test 
of  time  and  take  definite  form  in  the  crucible  of  demo- 
cratic citizenship  ordeals.  Of  how  this  may  be  done 
specifically  through  the  subject-matter  the  schoolman  has 
to  select  from,  the  chapters  to  follow  attempt  to  indicate. 
Vital  Questions  for  the  Teacher. — Finally,  it  should  be 
kept  constantly  in  mind  that,  in  the  considerations  of 
this  chapter,  two  vital  questions  are  involved.  One  is 
that  we  must  make  our  choice  of  studies  and  of  selected 
materials  in  these  studies  with  reference  to  the  disci- 
plinary effects  inherent  in  them,  as  well  as  with  reference 
to  the  immediate  social  use  and  advantage  they  possess. 
The  other  is  that,  after  our  curriculum  subjects  and  the 
particular  topics  within  these  special  fields  have  been 
settled  upon,  we  must  refine  our  methods  so  as  to  make 
the  best  possible  use  of  the  subject-matter  in  the  course. 
This  latter  point  applies  particularly  to  the  average 
teacher  who  unfortunately  at  present  has  little  to  say  in 
the  choices  of  curriculum  subjects.  Maximum  results 
and  permanent  benefits  become  the  goal.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  this  second  question  also,  not  only  the  classical 
studies,  but  agriculture  or  domestic  science,  or  even  music, 
must  be  measured  finally  in  terms  of  a  broadly  concerved 
disciplinary  standard. 

For  reading  references  for  this  chapter  and  later  chapters,  see  bibli- 
ography at  the  end  of  the  book. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS  SINCE 
THE  RENAISSANCE 

G.  L.  JACKSON,  Pn.D. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR   OF   THE   HISTORY   OF    EDUCATION, 
UNIVERSITY   OF    MICHIGAN 

Aim  of  Chapter. — The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  briefly 
to  show  the  various  factors  which  have  shaped  the  curric- 
ulum of  the  secondary  school  from  the  Renaissance  to 
the  present  time,  to  account  for  the  new  types  of  second- 
ary schools  which  from  time  to  time  have  sprung  into 
being,  to  point  out  the  traditional  factors  in  the  present 
course  of  study,  and,  having  set  forth  the  origin,  aim,  and 
conditions  which  gave  them  a  place  in  the  secondary  pro- 
gramme, to  give  a  basis  for  judging  the  rationality  of  the 
present  curriculum  with  respect  to  its  power  to  serve 
present  needs.  This  survey  can  touch  but  lightly  the 
most  important  educational  epochs,  and  statements  must 
be  made  more  or  less  dogmatically  which  would  be  quali- 
fied in  some  respects  in  a  more  detailed  study. 

Greek  Education. — As  the  Renaissance  was  a  revival 
of  the  liberal  education  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans 
and  was  a  reaction  against  the  education  and  the  ideals 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  it  is  necessary  to  set  forth  the  larger 
aims  of  these  educational  systems.  The  education  of 
the  Greeks  was  aristocratic,  that  is,  on  account  of  the 
cost  it  was  possible  only  to  the  few;  its  aim  was  to  de- 

45 


46  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

velop  the  individual  for  the  noble  enjoyment  of  leisure 
and  to  fit  him  for  leadership  especially  in  the  field  of 
politics.  To  the  Athenian  the  field  of  action  and  the 
field  of  speculation  were  not  restricted;  he  might  follow 
the  argument  wherever  it  chanced  to  lead,  exercise  his 
mental  powers  in  any  way  that  pleased  his  fancy,  and  with 
what  results  we  are  all  familiar.  The  education  which 
prepared  for  these  mature  activities  the  Greeks  called 
the  liberal  education.  It  was  informally  organized  into 
elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century.  As  a  rule  the  following  subjects  stood 
between  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  and  the 
higher  branches  as  given  in  the  rhetorical  and  philosoph- 
ical schools — grammar  (including  composition,  history, 
and  literature),  arithmetic,  astronomy,  geography,  geom- 
etry, music,  and  gymnastics.  The  greatest  amount  of 
time  was  put  upon  the  study  of  grammar. 

Roman  Education. — The  Romans  were  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  Greek  methods,  subject-matter,  and  organ- 
ization, and,  according  to  the  usual  Roman  practice  of 
taking  for  their  own  use  whatever  seemed  to  their  ad- 
vantage in  the  development  of  the  imperial  idea,  they 
adopted  the  liberal  education  of  the  Greeks  but  modified 
it  to  the  characteristic  practical  bent  of  the  Roman 
genius.  Roman  education,  like  the  Greek,  was  for  the 
few  and  was  concerned  ideally  with  the  development  of 
the  orator.  Quintilian,  who  represents  in  his  Institutes 
the  best  type  of  Roman  education,  makes  grammar  (used 
in  the  Greek  sense),  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music 
the  subjects  of  the  secondary  curriculum.  Grammar  is 
the  secondary  subject  to  which  the  Romans  gave  the 
greatest  amount  of  attention.  By  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  A.  D.,  Roman  education  had  crystallized 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        47 

into  the  study  of  those  subjects  which  were  later  known 
as  the  seven  liberal  arts — grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectic, 
arithmetic,  astronomy,  geometry,  and  music.  The  first 
three, — or  the  trivium,  as  they  were  called — were  propae- 
deutic to  the  mathematical  subjects  or  the  quadrivium. 
Mediaeval  Education. — Without  entering  into  a  discus- 
sion of  the  attitude  of  Christianity  toward  pagan  learning, 
we  may  make  the  bald  statement  that  with  the  downfall 
of  pagan  worship  the  seven  liberal  arts  were  looked  upon 
by  the  Christians  with  less  disfavor  than  when  these  arts 
were  ministering  to  the  needs  of  their  opponents.  Through 
the  influence  of  St.  Augustine,  Cassiodorus,  and  the  Rules 
of  Saint  Benedict  the  Egyptians  were  despoiled,  and 
pagan  learning,  greatly  modified  by  its  new  aim,  became 
a  part  of  the  training  for  leadership  in  the  spiritual  life 
of  the  time.  The  following  is  an  ideal  mediaeval  course 
of  study  outlined  by  William,  Abbot  of  Hirschau  (1069- 
1091): 

The  course,  however,  is  that  because  all  teaching  is  done  by 
word  of  mouth,  we  are  to  be  instructed  in  speaking  first.  This 
instruction  is  divided  into  three  parts:  to  write  and  speak  correctly 
as  prescribed  by  grammar;  to  prove  what  has  to  be  proved  in  con- 
formity with  logic,  and  to  ornate  the  same,  as  taught  by  rhetoric. 
Thus  fitted  out  and  provided  with  these  arms,  we  must  begin  the 
study  of  philosophy,  in  which  the  order  is,  first,  the  quadrivium,  and 
then  the  Holy  Scriptures,  arriving,  through  knowledge  of  that  which 
is  created,  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Creator. 

The  ideal  monastic  curriculum  is  seen  to  have  con- 
tained the  subjects  named  by  the  Greeks  as  fundamental 
to  the  liberal  education,  also  those  by  which  the  Roman 
aimed  to  produce  the  orator.  The  church  used  them  as 
a  means  of  spiritual  growth ;  the  aim  is  purely  ecclesiasti- 


48  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

cal.  Naturally,  this  type  of  education  did  not  appeal  to 
the  laymen.  It  was  not  until  feudalism  connected  itself 
with  religion  and  religious  wars  that  the  secular  nobility 
had  what  might  be  termed  a  system  of  education,  that 
is,  the  discipline  of  chivalry.  It  contained  but  little  of 
what  might  be  termed  book-learning. 

The  Renaissance. — Space  forbids  any  discussion  of  the 
causes  which  brought  about  the  Renaissance.  It  must 
suffice  to  say  that  the  movement  begins  in  the  thirteenth 
century  as  a  reaction  against  the  spirit  of  authority  and 
constraint  which  marks  the  mediaeval  period  in  practically 
all  avenues  of  expression.  The  great  interest  in  classical 
literature  is  a  later  phase  of  the  general  movement;  the 
desire  for  liberty  and  freedom  came  first.  When  men 
imbued  with  this  spirit  read  the  classics,  they  found  there 
depicted  men  who  had  enjoyed  the  all-round  intellectual, 
aesthetic,  and  physical  development  which  they  as  reaction- 
aries craved.  Thus  the  classics  came  to  be  valued  for 
their  content  rather  than  as  material  for  the  illustration  of 
grammatical  rules  which  was  the  use  to  which  they  were 
usually  put  in  mediaeval  education.  But  in  addition  to 
the  content  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  recognized  the 
beauty  and  the  value  of  classic  style  or  expression.  They 
recognized  the  fact  that  but  for  the  form  in  which  the 
content  was  expressed  the  works  would  not  have  lived. 
However,  in  the  early  Renaissance  the  form  was  second- 
ary to  the  content. 

The  broad  conception  of  life  peculiar  to  the  Renais- 
sance, a  life  which  to  a  certain  extent  could  be  realized 
through  a  study  of  books,  offered  a  basis  for  the  fusion  of 
the  ideals  of  the  knight  or  courtier,  as  he  was  now  called, 
and  the  ideals  of  the  learned  class.  This  is  no  unim- 
portant matter  in  the  history  of  civilization.  This  fusion 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS       49 

of  ideals  is  brought  out  clearly  by  Castiglione  (1478- 
1529)  in  his  "Courtier." 

But  besyde  goodnesse,  the  true  &  principall  ornament  of  the 
mynde  in  everye  manne  (I  beleave)  are  letters  although  the  French- 
menne  know  onelye  the  noblenesse  of  armes,  and  passe  for  nothing 
besides;  so  that  they  do  not  onelye  not  sett  by  letters,  but  they 
rather  abhorre  them  &  they  think  it  a  great  vilany  whan  any  one  of 
them  is  called  a  clarke. 

The  greatest  educational  effects  of  the  Renaissance 
were  in  the  field  of  secondary  education,  and  the  school 
which  best  typifies  the  ideals  of  the  early  period — the 
development  of  mind,  soul,  and  body — was  that  of 
Vittorino  da  Feltre  at  Mantua.  His  curriculum  and 
method  were  based  on  the  Institutes  of  Quintilian;  the 
style  and  spirit  of  literary  composition  on  the  study  of 
Cicero. 

The  Sixteenth  Century. — But  the  broad  conception  of 
the  aim  of  education  and  the  treatment  of  subject-matter 
as  a  means  to  compass  this  desired  end,  had  suffered  by 
the  sixteenth  century  a  decided  change.  This  was  due  to 
admiration  of  the  style  of  Cicero  irrespective  of  content, 
and  to  teachers  who  could  drill  vocabularies  and  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  into  their  pupils  with 
greater  ease  than  they  could  form  character.  This  change 
was  reinforced  later  by  the  Reformation  and  counter- 
Reformation  whose  immediate  influence  was  to  make 
education  narrow,  scholastic,  and  theological.  The  no- 
bility became  estranged  from  this  type  of  education; 
scholars  were  again  looked  upon  by  the  gentle  class 
with  contempt;  and  a  knowledge  of  the  world  and  of 
people  was  considered  to  be  the  desirable  education  for 
the  gentleman. 


50  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

No  better  illustration  of  the  organized  secondary  edu- 
cation of  the  period,  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  its 
influence  and  its  course  of  study,  can  be  found  than 
that  of  Sturm's  Gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  founded  in 
1538.  The  subjects  of  this  curriculum  formed  the  back- 
bone of  secondary  education  in  Europe  and  America  to 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  though,  of  course, 
the  schools  of  the  smaller  towns  and  villages  could  not 
give  so  extensive  a  training  as  is  described.  The  boy 
entered  this  secondary  school  at  the  age  of  six  and  im- 
mediately began  the  study  of  the  following  curriculum 
in  which  the  dominance  of  Cicero  is  shown  by  italics: 

Reading  and  writing.  Catechism.  Latin  grammar.  Letters  of 
Cicero. 

Latin  grammar.  Eclogues  of  Vergil.  Letters  of  Cicero.  Con- 
versation in  Latin.  Religious  instruction. 

Latin  grammar.  De  Amicitia  and  De  Senectute.  Selections  from 
Vergil,  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Horace.  Latin  composition  (prose 
and  verse).  Religious  training. 

De  Oratore.  Poetic  selections  from  authors  named  above. 
Caesar's  Commentaries.  Latin  composition.  Religious  instruction. 

Greek  begun.  De  Officiis.  Georgics.  Pro  Lege  Manila.  Latin 
prose  based  on  De  Oratore.  Religious  training. 

Cicero  and  Demosthenes;  Vergil  and  Homer.  Rhetoric.  Sallust 
and  Plautus.  Religious  teaching. 

Dialectic.  Rhetoric.  Greek  orations.  Sallust,  Caesar.  Livy. 
Religious  teaching. 

Dialectic.  Dialogues  of  Plato  and  Cicero.  De  Oratore.  Hebrew. 
Religious  teaching. 

Declamation.  Aristotle.  Arithmetic.  Astrology.  Demosthenes 
and  Homer  Oratory.  Hebrew.  Religious  teaching. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        51 

Predominance  of  Latin. — As  this  is  the  typical  curricu- 
lum of  the  best  secondary  schools  during  the  sixteenth 
century  in  Germany,  France,  and  England,  let  us  ex- 
amine it  somewhat  more  closely.  We  find  but  slight 
attention  given  to  mathematical  science — although  arith- 
metic appears  in  Sturm's  curriculum,  no  time  was  found 
for  nearly  fifty  years  in  which  to  teach  it;  natural  science  is 
given  no  place,  neither  is  geography,  though  ancient  geog- 
raphy was  doubtless  touched  upon  in  the  classical  studies 
by  some  teachers;  physical  training  was  not  given;  no 
attention  was  paid  to  the  vernacular;  no  training  of  an 
aesthetic  nature  except  in  appreciation  of  literary  form  is 
to  be  found.  But  little,  it  is  evident,  is  left  of  the  Renais- 
sance conception  of  the  aim  of  education.  The  ready 
command  of  the  Latin  language  was  the  main  object  of 
secondary  school  work  and  it  must  be  noted  with  respect 
to  this  aim  that  Latin  was  still  the  language  of  scholars,  of 
scholarly  books,  and  formed  with  Greek  and  Hebrew  the 
necessary  tool  for  investigating  religious  sources.  But 
the  classics  were  no  longer  studied  for  their  content  value. 
The  emphasis,  as  has  been  remarked,  was  placed  upon 
the  practical  command  of  the  language  through  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  composition — the  liberal  education  of 
Plato,  of  Quintilian,  of  Vittorino,  has  become  confused 
with  drill,  memory  work,  and  slavish  imitation.  The 
social  force  of  this  curriculum  of  the  sixteenth  century 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  emphasizes  and  supports  the 
religious  spirit  of  the  time.  The  Reformation  and 
counter-Reformation  schools  rescued  ecclesiastical  train- 
ing from  what  might  be  termed  the  worldliness  of  the 
Renaissance. 

The  Seventeenth  Century. — The  secondary  schools  of 
the  early  seventeenth  century  were  as  follows:  In  Ger- 


52  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

many,  after  1543,  they  were  of  two  types  with  respect 
to  control  and  support:  (i)  the  city  schools;  e.  g.,  Stras- 
burg,  which  had  their  roots  in  the  mediaeval  period  and 
were  controlled  and  maintained  by  the  municipalities; 
(2)  the  state  schools  beginning  at  the  above  date  and 
founded  under  Reformation  influences,  particularly 
Luther's,  administered  and  supported  by  the  state. 
Gradually  the  state  has  extended  its  sphere  of  educa- 
tional influence  until  the  State  Gymnasien  form  at  the 
present  time,  as  Paulsen  puts  it,  the  backbone  of  the 
German  educational  system.  Tuition  charges  were 
assessed;  in  fact,  to-day  the  United  States  and  Canada 
are  the  only  countries  which  have  an  absolutely  free  sys- 
tem of  secondary  schools. 

In  England  there  were  the  (i)  English  public  schools, 
e.  g.,  Eton,  Harrow,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  Latin  grammar 
schools.  Neither  of  these  types  of  schools  was  under 
government  supervision.  With  respect  to  support  and 
control  these  schools  were  either  upon  foundations  (en- 
dowed) ;  proprietary  i.  e.,  founded  and  governed  by  a  com- 
mercial corporation;  and  private.  The  endowed  schools 
in  particular  provided  for  the  free  education  of  a  certain 
number  of  boys  who  were  usually  called  "  foundationers" ; 
all  others  in  all  schools  paid  fixed  fees. 

In  France  the  most  satisfactory  secondary  education 
was  to  be  had  in  the  Colleges  of  the  Jesuits.  It  is  agreed 
on  all  sides  that  the  Jesuit  teachers  and  the  Jesuit  schools 
were  the  best  which  Europe  afforded  from  the  late  six- 
teenth to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Tuition 
was  free. 

The  Latin  grammar  schools  of  the  American  colonies 
in  their  general  aim  and  curriculum  were  like  their  pro- 
totypes in  the  mother  country.  In  the  agreement  be- 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        53 

tween  the  town  of  Dorchester  and  the  teacher  for  the 
year  1655  appears  the  following: 

...  to  teach  in  a  free  Schoole  in  Dorchester  all  such  Cheldren  as 
by  the  inhabitants  shall  be  Comitted  vnto  his  Care  in  Ennglish  Laten 
and  Greeke  as  from  time  to  time  the  Cheldren  shall  be  Capable 
and  allso  instruct  them  in  Writinge  as  he  shall  be  able:  which  is  to 
be  vnderstood  such  Cheldren  who  are  so  far  entred  all  redie  to 
knowe  there  Leters  and  to  spell  somewhat 

Massachusetts  in  1647  and  Connecticut  in  1650  made 
the  type  of  school  mentioned  above  compulsory  by  the 
following  enactment: 

It  is  further  ordered,  That  where  any  town  shall  increase  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred  families  or  householders,  they  shall  set  up 
a  grammar  school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to  instruct  youth, 
so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted,  for  the  university  .  .  . 

To  recapitulate:  We  find  that  in  the  early  seventeenth 
century  the  study  of  Latin  primarily  and  Greek  secondarily 
constitutes  the  main  work  offered  in  the  secondary  schools 
of  Europe  and  the  length  of  time  for  which  this  statement 
continues  to  hold  true  has  been  suggested;  that,  by  cen- 
turies of  teaching,  the  method  of  instruction  in  the  Latin 
language  was  wellnigh  perfected  and  the  subject-matter 
satisfactorily  selected;  that  the  results  of  Latin  teaching 
of  that  time,  from  the  point  of  view  of  knowing  Latin, 
were  far  better  than  at  present;  that  the  secondary 
school  prepares  for  the  university;  that  elementary  edu- 
cation consists  in  the  bare  ability  to  read  and  to  write. 
As  a  result  of  this  purely  linguistic  type  of  education  we 
find  that  the  secondary  school  acts  as  an  extremely  nar- 
row selective  agency.  Only  such  as  are  naturally  gifted 


54  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

for  language  work  are  able  to  survive  and  achieve  any 
success  in  this  linguistic  discipline.  To  others,  organized 
education  offers  no  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
those  powers  or  interests  not  demanded  by  the  Latin 
grammar  school.  With  respect  to  method  of  teaching 
we  find  that  subject-matter  is  arranged  and  presented 
from  that  point  of  view  which  appeals  to  the  adult. 
We  now  have  a  part  of  our  present  day  curriculum 
firmly  established — the  remainder  of  the  chapter  will 
concern  itself  with  those  transition  features  which 
brought  about  new  types  of  schools  and  secured  a  place 
for  other  fields  of  experience  alongside  the  traditional 
subjects. 

Reaction  from  the  Reformation. — The  vital,  liberal- 
izing force  of  the  Reformation  soon  came  to  an  end. 
Religion  became  formal  and  consisted  for  the  most  part 
of  intellectual  assent  to  a  skilfully  drawn  creed.  Re- 
action came  through  two  channels:  first,  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  interests  which  since  the  early  Renais- 
sance had  led  an  extremely  attenuated  existence,  and, 
second,  the  rise  of  a  new  religious  spirit  which  placed  the 
emphasis  upon  faith  and  conduct.  Bacon  (1561-1626), 
Hobbes  (1588-1679),  and  Descartes  (1596-1650)  were 
the  leaders  of  those  reactionary  forces  opposed  to  the 
dominant  intellectual  life  of  the  times.  They  stand  in 
particular  for  that  movement  which  developed  the 
mathematical  sciences  and  applied  them  to  the  solution 
of  the  problems  of  natural  science  and,  in  general,  for  the 
use  of  reason  in  all  activities.  This  transition  period 
marks  the  rise  of  modern  philosophy  and  science,  and, 
on  the  political  side,  the  rise  of  the  modern  state.  The 
movements  toward  religious  reform  are  known  in  Eng- 
land as  Puritanism,  in  Germany  as  Pietism,  and  in 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        55 

France  as  Jansenism;  the  leading  educational  exponents 
were  Milton,  Francke,  and  Saint-Cyran. 

This  movement  was  highly  influential  in  the  field  of 
secondary  education.  It  placed  the  emphasis  upon  the 
utilitarian,  upon  the  "real"  subjects — mathematics,  mod- 
ern language  (especially  French),  physics,  political  and 
social  science,  geography,  modern  history,  etc.  The 
value  of  ancient  science  and  language  was  violently 
attacked,  though  Latin  was  still  considered  a  necessary 
part  of  a  gentleman's  training.  During  the  last  half 
of  the  seventeenth  and  all  of  the  eighteenth  century 
it  was  Descartes  and  Locke,  Leibnitz  and  Kant  who 
directed  the  trend  of  thought,  rather  than  the  great 
theologians. 

Practical  Result  of  Reaction. — On  the  side  of  organiza- 
tion this  movement  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  three 
types  of  schools — the  Ritter-Akademien  or  schools  for 
the  sons  of  the  German  nobility;  the  school  of  Francke 
at  Halle  which  attempted  to  unite  the  realistic  and  prac- 
tical subjects  with  the  traditional  curriculum  and  whose 
influence  is  directly  responsible  for  the  present  Real- 
Schtden  of  Germany;  and  the  academies.  Probably  the 
best  known  example  of  the  early  American  academy 
,is  the  school  founded  in  1751  through  the  influence  of 
Benjamin  Franklin — "The  Academy  and  Charitable 
School  of  Pennsylvania."  Provision  was  made  in  this 
academy  for  the  differentiation  of  the  curriculum  into 
three  courses — Latin,  English,  and  mathematics.  Frank- 
lin did  not  consider  the  study  of  ancient  languages 
necessary  for  the  majority  of  boys,  and,  though  he 
planned  for  the  traditional  course  of  study,  his  main 
interest  was  in  the  English  course  or  school.  After 
the  usual  elementary  preparation  of  the  time,  ».  «., 


56  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

reading  and    writing,   the   boy   pursued   the   following 
subjects: 

Reading  the  best  English  authors,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
rhetoric,  declamation,  ancient  and  modern  history,  natural  philos- 
ophy, English  composition,  moral  philosophy,  geography,  logic. 

With  respect  to  the  English  course  he  adds: 

The  hours  of  each  day  are  to  be  divided  and  disposed  in  such  a 
manner  as  that  some  classes  may  be  with  the  writing  master,  im- 
proving their  hands;  others  with  the  mathematical  master,  learning 
arithmetic,  accounts,  geography,  the  use  of  globes,  drawing,  mechan- 
ics, etc. ;  while  the  rest  are  in  the  English  school,  under  the  English 
master's  care. 

The  Classics. — Since  the  churches  in  those  countries 
affected  by  the  Reformation  did  not  use  Latin,  and  since 
French  had  superseded  Latin  as  the  language  of  court 
and  diplomacy,  the  social  value  of  the  classics,  which 
has  been  previously  mentioned,  was  largely  gone.  For 
teaching  purposes,  however,  the  classics  still  presented  a 
definite  body  of  subject-matter  and  a  well -tested  method 
of  instruction ; — this  could  not  be  said  of  the  sciences  at 
this  stage  of  their  development.  The  classics  also  had 
the  school  traditions  of  centuries  behind  them.  In  order 
to  resist  the  efforts  of  the  rationalistic-scientific  move- 
ment to  dislodge  them  from  the  curriculum,  the  study 
of  the  classics  was  urged  not  upon  social  but  upon  psy- 
chological grounds.1  It  was  held  that  the  value  of  edu- 
cation depends  not  so  much  on  what  is  learned  as  on 
the  process  of  learning.  This  psychological  basis,  re- 
inforced by  the  rationalistic  spirit  of  the  age,  also  accounts 

1  Cf.  chapter  II. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        57 

for  the  addition  of  mathematics  to  the  traditional  lin- 
guistic curriculum.     According  to  Locke: 

Would  you  have  a  man  reason  well,  you  must  use  him  to  it  be- 
times, exercise  his  mind  in  observing  the  connection  of  ideas  and 
following  them  in  train.  Nothing  does  this  better  than  mathe- 
matics, which  therefore  should  be  taught  all  those  who  have  the 
time  and  opportunity,  not  so  much  to  make  them  mathematicians 
as  to  make  them  reasonable  creatures. 

On  the  above  grounds  the  schools  mentioned  as  giving 
secondary  education  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century 
still  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  with 
curriculum  but  slightly  modified  through  the  introduction 
of  a  small  amount  of  mathematics.  Exception  is  to  be 
made,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  French  College.  The 
Jesuits  were  expelled  from  France  in  1762  and  the  Colleges 
of  the  University  of  Paris  were  abolished  in  1793  by  act  of 
the  Convention.  The  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  then, 
finds  secondary  education  in  France  in  a  chaotic  state. 

Influence  of  Rousseau. — The  general  effects  of  the  in- 
fluence of  Rousseau  upon  secondary  education  is  pri- 
marily to  be  found  in  the  spirit  of  the  work  given  in 
the  secondary  schools  already  in  existence.  One  aspect 
of  his  theories  united  readily  with  the  Neo-Humanistic 
movement  which  stressed  (i)  the  idea  of  free  natural  de- 
velopment to  be  secured  through  a  study  of  Greek  au- 
thors, and  (2)  the  cultural  value  of  historical  study — 
this  affected  the  Gymnasien.  Another  aspect  of  his 
social  and  educational  theories  reinforced  the  principles 
fundamental  to  the  existence  of  the  Real-Schulen  and  the 
Academies,  in  so  far  as  they  dealt  with  the  realities  of 
nature  and  sought  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples underlying  commercial  and  trade  practices.  His 


58  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

whole  theory  was  a  blow  aimed  at  class  privilege  and  it 
gave  additional  impulse  to  the  upward  movement  of  the 
middle-class  and  its  importance  in  the  sphere  of  poli- 
tics. This  leads  directly  to  the  breaking  down  of  those 
barriers  which  had  confined  secondary  education  to  the 
few.  Education  was  now  looked  upon  as  a  civil  rather 
than  as  an  ecclesiastical  matter;  as  related  to  the  state 
rather  than  to  the  church.  Education  was  one  of  the 
matters  to  which  the  French  Conventions  gave  the  great- 
est attention;  but  little,  however,  was  actually  accom- 
plished. The  educational  implication  of  Fichte's  appeal 
to  the  German  nation  was  national  and  civic  rather  than 
ecclesiastical.  The  extension  of  suffrage  in  England, 
beginning  in  1830,  was  immediately  followed  by  legis- 
lative enactment  aiming  to  increase  opportunity  for  ed- 
ucation. Our  Ordinance  of  1787  contains  the  follow- 
ing clause:  "religion,  morals,  and  knowledge  being 
necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind, schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever 
be  encouraged";  the  speeches  of  Governor  Clinton,  of 
New  York,  constantly  ring  the  changes  on  the  value  of 
education  for  good  citizenship;  in  the  legislative  debates 
on  the  question  of  establishing  free  schools,  the  argu- 
ment is  always  advanced  that  education  is  the  bulwark 
of  the  poor  man's  political  rights. 

German  Secondary  Education. — The  general  trend  of 
development  in  the  field  of  German  secondary  education 
from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the  pres- 
ent time  has  been  along  the  line  of  recognizing  the  utility 
of  types  of  schools  which  give  opportunity  for  special 
training.  These  are  the  classical  or  Gymnasien,  the 
semi-classical  or  Real-Gymnasien,  and  the  modern  or 
Ober-Realschulen. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS       59 


The  following  table  indicates  the  subjects  pursued 
and  the  hours  devoted  to  each.  By  hours  is  meant  the 
number  of  recitations  per  week  for  nine  years  (the  time 
required  to  complete  the  full  secondary  course);  as,  for 
example,  natural  science  twice  a  week  for  nine  years 
would  be  credited  with  eighteen  hours. 


GYM. 

REAL-GYM. 

OBER  R.  S. 

Religion  

IQ 

IQ 

19 

German  and  history  

26 

28 

•J4 

Latin            

68 

40 

Greek  

•3,6 

French  

2O 

20 

47 

English  

18 

25 

History.                   

17 

17 

18 

Geography  

n 

II 

14 

Mathematics  

24 

42 

47 

Natural  science  

18 

2Q 

36 

Writing  

4 

4 

6 

Drawing  

8 

16 

16 

Total  hours  in  course  

2<?Q 

262 

262 

About  one-third  of  the  current  expenses  of  these  schools 
is  met  by  tuition  fees. 

.English  Secondary  Education. — Secondary  education  in 
England  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  at  a  low  ebb.  The  schools  had  been  but  slightly 
affected,  if  at  all,  by  the  modern  demands  for  science, 
mathematics,  modern  languages,  and  history,  but  in  re- 
sponse to  public  sentiment  aroused  by  the  reports  of  the 
parliamentary  commissions  appointed  in  1861  and  1864, 
the  secondary  schools  now  have  what  is  called  a  "  modern 
side."  This  is  shown  by  the  following  course  of  study 
of  Haileybury,  a  public  school: 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


CLASSICAL  SIDE 
6   YEARS 
HOURS 

MODERN  SIDE 
3   YEARS 
HOURS 

Divinity  

It; 

g 

Latin  

AA. 

17 

Greek.     .    . 

11 

English  ...      .            

7 

2 

Modern  languages  

IO 

22 

History  

IO 

c 

Mathematics  

•21 

27 

Natural  science  .  . 

GeoeraDnv..  . 

At  the  present  time  secondary  education  is  given  in 
the  great  public  schools  which  are  patronized  by  the 
upper  class;  grammar  schools  controlled  by  local  civil 
authorities  or  by  boards  representing  the  donors;  private 
schools,  as  a  rule  owned  by  the  head-master;  and  local 
board  schools,  created  by  recent  parliamentary  acts  and 
supported  by  local  rates  and  state  aid. 

French  Secondary  Education. — The  present  secondary 
school  system  of  France  has  its  origin  in  the  law  of  May 
i,  1802,  which  established  the  communal  colleges  and 
the  lycZes.  The  main  distinction  between  these  schools 
is  in  the  matter  of  support;  the  expenses  of  the  latter  are 
entirely  the  concern  of  the  state,  while  part  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  former  are  met  by  the  commune.  As  in 
Germany,  the  general  trend  of  development  has  been 
along  the  line  of  giving  training  through  special  courses 
for  various  fields  of  activity,  though,  as  in  England  and 
in  America,  the  attempt  to  solve  the  problem  is  by  giving 
a  choice  within  the  one  school  rather  than  differentiating 
types  of  schools.  The  present  course  of  study  is  divided 
into  two  cycles,  one  of  four  years  and  the  other  of  three. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        61 


In  the  first  cycle  two  courses  are  open  for  election;  in  the 
first  two  years  of  the  second  cycle  three  are  open,  but 
choice  will  depend  upon  what  preparation  was  received 
in  the  first  four  years;  two  are  open  in  the  last  year, 
choice  again  depending  upon  previous  preparation.  The 
following  is  the  table  of  hours  for  the  seven  years'  work : 


FIRST  CYCLE, 
4  YEARS 

(A)          (B) 

SECOND  CYCLE.'riRST  2  YEARS 
(A)              (B)            (C)       (D) 

French  

12 
26 

8 
20 
7-9 
3 

12 

2 

8 

19 

20 

15 

9 

12 
2 

6-10 

2 
2 

I 

6 

9 
10 

4 

2 

3 

10 

2-4 

6 

7-9 

14 

2 

3 

IO 

2-4 

8 

4 

8 

13 
6 

5 

8 

14 
8 

13 
6 

5 

Latin  

Greek  (opt.)  

Modern  languages  

Mathematics  

Science  

History  and  geography  

Ethics  

Drawing  

Writing  

Book-keeping  

Elements  of  law  

In  Second  Cycle  (A)  is  equivalent  to  Classical,  (B)  to  Latin  and 
Modern  Languages,  (C)  to  Latin-Scientific,  (D)  to  Science  and  Modern 
Languages. 


SECOND  CYCLB 
PHILOSOPHY 

,  THIRD   YEAR 
MATHEMATICS 

Philosophy  

8-0 

Greek  

2    (opt.) 

Latin  

2    (opt.) 

Modern  languages  

2    (opt.) 

2 

History  

•I 

•I 

Mathematics  

2 

8 

Science  

C 

Q 

Drawing  

2    (opt.) 

2    (opt.) 

Hygiene  

12  lectures 

12  lectures 

62  HIGH   SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Early  American  Schools :  The  Academy. — The  begin- 
nings of  a  new  movement  in  education  in  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  has  been  indicated  in  the  discussion  of 
Franklin's  academy.  That  the  Latin  grammar  schools 
were  but  slightly,  if  at  all,  affected  by  this  movement  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  college  entrance  requirements 
were  not  changed  until  the  year  1807.  Harvard  at  this 
time  added  geography  to  the  time-honored  requirements 
in  Latin,  Greek,  and  arithmetic.  It  was  the  Revolution, 
the  emphasis  upon  the  rights  and  equality  of  man,  the 
growth  of  a  middle-class,  the  idea  that  education  had 
value  in  itself  for  citizenship  and  a  wide-spread  desire 
to  secure  it,  the  demand  for  a  more  practical  training 
along  the  lines  of  mathematics  and  science,  and  a  patri- 
otic demand  for  a  greater  emphasis  upon  the  study  of 
English,  rhetoric,  and  public  speaking  that  formed  the 
basis  for  a  new  type  of  school — the  academy  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  neither  the 
restricted  curriculum  of  the  Latin  schools  nor  the  narrow 
instruction  of  the  college  satisfied  the  demands  of  these 
new  political  and  social  conditions.  The  academy,  on 
the  other  hand,  offered  a  wide  range  of  subjects — many 
of  them  poorly  organized  and  poorly  taught  to  be  sure — 
and  sought  to  give  something  like  a  well-rounded  educa- 
tion to  the  many  for  a  small  tuition  charge.  From  its 
preparatory  nature  the  Latin  school  could  not  do  this, 
and  the  college  either  did  not  appeal  to  or  was  too  ex- 
pensive for  the  many. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  century  the  course  of  study  in 
the  academies  was  rather  an  indefinite  quantity.  Con- 
tinuity and  grading  of  work  was  possible,  of  course,  in 
the  classics  and  in  mathematics;  but  as  a  rule  classes 
were  formed  in  various  subjects  according  to  the  demand. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        63 

In  time  courses  of  study  of  from  three  to  five  years  were 
formed.  Usually  these  comprised  the  college  prepara- 
tory course  which  in  most  academies  became  the  stand- 
ard, the  English  course,  the  scientific  course,  and  later 
the  Latin-scientific  course.  For  purpose  of  comparison, 
the  curriculum  of  one  of  the  best  New  York  academies, 
that  at  Albany,  and  the  curriculum  of  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  both  in  the  50*5,  are  given  below. 

Albany:  Arithmetic,  algebra,  architecture,  astronomy,  botany, 
book-keeping,  chemistry,  composition,  conic  sections,  constitution  of 
New  York,  declamation,  drawing,  English  grammar,  French, 
geography,  physical  geography,  plane  and  analytic  geometry,  Greek, 
general  history,  U.  S.  history,  hydrostatics,  Latin,  logic,  mechanics, 
mineralogy,  navigation,  optics,  orthography,  natural  philosophy, 
moral  philosophy,  penmanship,  political  economy,  reading,  rhet- 
oric, Roman  antiquities,  surveying,  trigonometry,  technology. 

Boston:  "The  rudiments  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  are 
taught,  and  scholars  are  fitted  for  the  most  respectable  colleges. 
Instruction  is  also  given  in  mathematics,  geography,  history,  decla- 
mation, English  grammar,  composition,  and  in  the  French  language." 
Quoted  from  the  regulations  of  the  school  committee. 

The  High  School. — The  academy,  however,  was  not 
in  the  control  of  the  people,  was  not  accessible  to  the 
many,  charged  tuition  fees,  and  took  the  boy  or  girl  away 
from  home  in  many  cases,  which  necessarily  added  to 
the  expense.  Consequently  we  find  in  some  of  the  larger 
cities  that  a  type  of  school  arises  which  is  controlled  and 
supported  by  the  citizens  and  organically  connected  with 
the  elementary  schools.  This  is  the  beginning  of  our 
present  high  schools.  The  aim  of  the  early  high  school 
did  not  differ  from  that  of  the  academy.  It  did  not  con- 
cern itself  with  preparation  for  college  but  looked  toward 


64  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

giving  a  free,  practical,  and  cultural  education  to  the 
children  of  the  municipality.  The  first  school  of  this 
type  was  the  English  High  School  of  Boston,  founded  in 
1821.  It  represents  a  reaction  against  the  exclusively 
classical  education  of  the  Boston  Latin  School. 

In  1825  a  high  school  for  boys  was  opened  in  New 
York  City.  A  part  of  the  report  on  this  school  reads  as 
follows: 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  grand  object  of  this  insti- 
tution is  to  prepare  boys  for  such  advancement,  and  such  pursuits  in 
life,  as  they  are  destined  to  after  leaving  it. 

Free  High  Schools. — The  high  schools  did  not  increase 
in  numbers  very  rapidly  until  free  school  systems  were 
adopted  in  the  various  States.  Additional  impetus  was 
given  to  the  movement  by  a  decision,  handed  down  in 
1872  by  Judge  Cooley,  of  Michigan,  in  the  famous  "Kal- 
amazoo  Case,"  to  the  effect  that  taxes  may  be  raised  for 
the  support  of  any  grade  of  instruction  provided  the  ma- 
jority of  voters  so  elect.  With  the  growth  of  the  high 
school  supported  by  public  taxation  the  academy,  de- 
pendent upon  tuition  charges,  has  been  forced  to  give  way. 

The  Course  of  Study. — Like  the  academy,  the  high 
school  in  its  early  history  offered  a  generous  number  of 
subjects  with  little  or  no  restriction  upon  what  should  be 
taken.  The  results  were  not  satisfactory  and  the  next 
step  was  to  form  definite  courses,  one  of  which  the  pupil 
must  choose  to  follow  without  deviation.  This,  too, 
proved  unsatisfactory,  for  it  led  to  too  early  specializa- 
tion. This  has  given  rise  to  the  various  methods  of 
dealing  with  the  course  of  study  familiar  to  all  of  us, 
i.  e.,  free  elections,  free  elections  within  certain  required 
groups,  required  subjects  supplemented  by  electives,  etc. 


HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS        65 

The  High  School  and  the  College. — The  whole  situa- 
tion has  become  complicated  by  the  fact  that  in  the  course 
of  time  the  high  schools  have  entered  into  organic  rela- 
tion with  the  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Probably 
the  most  important  factor  in  this  partial  change  in  aim 
was  the  establishment  of  the  State  systems  of  education 
extending  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  university. 
Naturally  the  demands  upon  the  high  schools  of  the  State 
for  college  preparatory  work  were  legitimate,  and  natu- 
rally the  university  authorities  have  been  mainly  inter- 
ested in  the  secondary  school  and  its  work  on  the  pre- 
paratory side.  Though  it  has  never  been  admitted  that 
the  function  of  the  high  school  is  not  primarily  to  fit 
boys  and  girls  for  life-work  and  to  give  them  some  con- 
ception of  culture,  yet  college  entrance  requirements  have 
the  advantage  of  offering  a  definite  teaching  aim  and  a 
definite  standard  for  evaluating  the  work  of  the  school 
that  is  here  and  now — the  teacher  knows  exactly  what  is 
demanded.  But  the  teacher  is  not  so  certain  of  what 
preparation  for  life  really  is,  particularly  life  in  a  demo- 
cratic society,  and  the  results  are  checked  up  with  the 
greatest  difficulty. 

Different  Types  of  High  Schools. — The  various  differ- 
entiations within  the  school  system  as  seen  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  commercial  high  schools,  technical  high 
schools,  manual  training  high  schools,  English  high 
schools,  classical  high  schools,  and  the  variations  within 
the  general  course  of  study  of  the  standard  high  schools 
which  seek,  as  far  as  possible,  to  offer  an  equivalent  of 
the  special  types  just  mentioned,  are  the  results  at  the 
present  time  of  the  attempts  to  secure  a  working  solution 
of  the  two  demands  upon  the  secondary  schools:  What 
may  the  universities  properly  require  of  the  "people's 


66  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

colleges"  in  the  way  of  entrance  requirements,  and  how 
shall  the  secondary  school  prepare  individuals  for  the 
practical  work  of  life  and  at  the  same  time  give  that  in- 
sight and  form  those  habits  which  shall  enable  them  to 
employ  their  leisure  to  the  best  advantage  for  self  and 
society  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PLANS  FOR  REORGANIZING 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

CALVIN  OLIN  DAVIS,  PH.D. 
ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 

Necessity  for  Reorganizing  School  System. — The  pres- 
ent plan  of  organizing  public  secondary  education  in  the 
United  States  is  irrational  and  wasteful.  It  can  find  no 
real  basis  in  history,  psychology,  or  logic.  Neither  does 
it  have  the  support  of  contemporary  practice  in  other  en- 
lightened countries.  In  its  form  and  administration  it 
stands  alone,  but  it  is  unique  in  ways  which  are  open  to 
severe  criticism.  There  is  a  growing  and  insistent  de- 
mand that  conditions  be  changed,  that  our  entire  public 
school  system  be  reorganized  in  the  interest  of  economy 
of  time  and  administration,  adaptability  to  individual 
needs,  training  for  specific  personal  aims,  and  extension 
of  social  welfare. 

If  one  looks  to  history  for  an  explanation  of  the  present 
system,  one  is  forced  to  turn  away  unsatisfied.  His- 
torically, even  in  America,  secondary  education  has  never 
till  recently  meant  four  years  of  school  work  superim- 
posed upon  a  required  elementary  course  of  eight  or 
nine  years.  Nor  has  admission  to  the  secondary  school 
ever  till  recently  presupposed  a  greater  knowledge  than 
a  reasonable  familiarity  with  the  school  arts.  The 

67 


68  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

records  of  the  colonial  Latin  grammar  schools  and  of 
the  old  academies  show  this.  It  was  not  till  well  down 
in  the  nineteenth  century  that  any  noticeable  departure 
from  this  custom  was  made.  In  1821,  when  the  first 
high  school  in  America  was  established,  the  sole  terms  of 
admission  were  ability  to  pass  examinations  in  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  English  grammar. 

Lengthening  of  Elementary  School  Course. — With  the 
rise  of  the  later  academies  and  the  differentiation  of  the 
English  course  in  the  high  school  from  the  classical  course 
the  period  of  pre-secondary  education  was  prolonged. 
Colleges  increased  their  requirements  for  admission. 
Secondary  schools,  following  the  suggestion,  became 
more  exacting  with  the  elementary  schools.  But  the 
elementary  school  as  then  organized  was  unable  to  meet 
the  demands.  The  elementary  school  year  was  short; 
the  elementary  school-teacher  was  poorly  trained;  ped- 
agogical methods  were  inferior.  Hence  annual  progress 
was  slow.  Thus  it  was  that  two,  four,  six  additional 
years  were  added  to  training  in  these  school  arts.  For 
a  period  there  was  little  uniformity,  but  finally  the  course 
eventuated  in  the  present  elementary  regime  of  eight  or 
nine  years. 

Foreign  Schools. — If  one  turns  to  European  countries 
for  suggestions  there  is  little  encouragement.  Current 
practices  there  lend  no  support  to  the  policy  of  post- 
poning entrance  upon  secondary  school  work  until  the 
completion  of  eight  or  nine  years'  elementary  study,  or 
until  the  youth  has  attained  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years.  Neither  do  the  school  systems  of  foreign  coun- 
tries limit  the  typical  course  of  secondary  instruction  to 
four  years.  Germany,  France,  and  England  have,  al- 
most from  the  very  outset,  provided  secondary  schools 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        6& 

that  have  been  organized  on  the  basis  of  six,  seven,  eight, 
or  nine  year  courses.  Recently  Japan  has  reorganized 
her  school  system  upon  this  principle.  In  none  of  these 
countries  is  a  youth  required  or  expected  to  complete  an 
eight  or  nine  year  elementary  course  before  being  ad- 
mitted to  the  secondary  school.  In  none  of  them  does 
an  undifferentiated  elementary  course  extend  beyond  a 
period  of  six  years,  and  usually  a  student  enters  upon  the 
work  of  the  secondary  schools  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten 
years. 

American  Educational  Work  Wrongly  Organized. — 
Again,  the  present  mode  of  organizing  and  administer- 
ing educational  work  in  America  is  psychologically  ill- 
grounded.  The  adolescent  period  begins  usually  at  about 
the  age  of  twelve  years.  With  the  dawn  of  this  new 
period  come  most  notable  changes  in  physical  form, 
structure,  and  function  and  most  decided  concomitant 
psychological  changes.  At  this  period  self-consciousness 
is  born.  The  interests  that  formerly  held  dominant  sway 
are  cast  aside.  New  motives  stir,  new  aspirations  fire, 
new  goals  beckon.  Conscious  logical  reason  begins  to 
proclaim  itself.  The  mind  is  no  longer  satisfied  with 
mere  empirical  facts,  but  it  demands  that  the  facts  be 
presented  in  their  essential  relations.  There  is  also  a 
restlessness  and  a  desire  for  movement.  Individuality 
begins  its  play  and  demands  a  larger  circle  in  which  to 
assert  and  express  itself.  Implicit  obedience  and  con- 
formity to  laws  and  rules  arbitrarily  imposed  can  no 
longer  be  secured.  The  purpose  and  necessity  for  re- 
straint must  be  made  clear  and  intelligible;  if  not,  tacit 
or  open  rebellion  ensues.  The  youth's  whole  nature 
calls  out  for  room — more  room. 

To  enforce  unnatural  restraints  upon  an  adolescent  is 


70  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  deaden  his  sensibilities,  stifle  his  intellectual  and  his 
social  enthusiasm,  and  atrophy  his  powers.  To  keep 
him  under  the  restrictive  and  arbitrary  discipline  of  the 
ordinary  elementary  school  is  to  sin  against  nature  and 
to  commit  an  offence  against  the  laws  of  social  well-being. 
To  employ  with  him  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
training  of  the  elementary  schools  is  to  provoke  him  to 
truancy,  encourage  him  to  evade  school  work,  and  im- 
pel him  to  forsake  school  duties  altogether.  The  be- 
ginning of  adolescence  is  most  emphatically  the  begin- 
ning of  the  period  of  secondary  education.  As  our 
schools  are  organized  and  administered  to-day  this  fact 
is  ignored. 

Thirdly,  there  is  no  reasonable  basis  for  organizing 
our  school  work  as  it  is.  Reason  would  assert — histori- 
cal and  psychological  considerations  aside — that  the 
schools  should  be  so  organized  and  administered  as  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  greatest  numbers  of  persons  for 
whom  they  are  nominally  designed.  Instead  of  prepar- 
ing each  pupil  as  fully  as  possible  for  the  position  in 
society  for  which  his  aptitudes,  interests,  and  resources 
make  him  most  fit,  our  system  forces  or  permits  a  de- 
plorable number  to  leave  school  and  become,  for  the 
most  part,  either  discontented  misfits  or  else  hardened, 
unaspiring,  inefficient  citizens.  Here  is  a  sheer  loss  of 
an  astoundingly  large  per  cent  of  the  raw  material  during 
the  process  of  production.  Any  private  manufacturing 
industry  that  should,  because  of  operating  methods, 
lose  or  cast  aside  from  its  unfinished  product  one-tenth 
of  what  is  lost  through  the  maladministration  of  our 
school  system  would  be  forced  into  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary bankruptcy  in  an  incredibly  short  time — and  it 
ought  to  be  so. 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        71 

No  school  system,  any  more  than  any  machine,  can  be 
operated  without  some  loss.  Nevertheless  it  is  possible 
greatly  to  minimize  the  losses  incident  to  the  administra- 
tion of  a  system  irrationally  organized.  An  organization 
that  needlessly  and  knowingly  duplicates  efforts;  that  con- 
tinues to  emphasize  much  that  is  non-essential  to  life's 
interests  and  impracticable  for  boys  and  girls  at  the  time 
the  subject  is  presented  to  them;  that  neglects  to  afford 
opportunity  for  the  discovery  of  real  individual  aptitudes 
or  to  stimulate  and  develop  them  when  revealed;  that 
permits  dangerous  gaps  and  openings  to  exist  between  the 
sections  of  its  course;  that  allows  no  individual  to  be 
ranked  or  classified  any  higher  than  the  standard  made 
in  respect  to  his  smallest  and  most  insignificant  talent; 
that  insists  upon  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  tools  of  the 
mind  without  permitting,  during  school  hours,  the  em- 
ployment of  those  tools  to  any  permanently  useful  ends; 
that  incessantly  drills  upon  forms  without  furnishing  any 
nourishing  content  to  fill  the  forms;  that,  in  short,  con- 
tinues to  postpone  indefinitely  from  day  to  day  and  year 
to  year  a  real  education  and  emphasizes  the  process  of 
ever  preparing  for  an  education — such  an  organization 
is  certainly  not  based  on  logic.  Such,  however,  has  been, 
and  still  is,  the  character  of  much  of  our  so-called  educa- 
tion of  the  elementary  school  in  particular  and  of  the 
high  school  in  general. 

Origin  of  Present  System. — The  present  organization 
of  our  public  schools  harks  back  to  the  days  of  the 
free  academies  which  arose  shortly  after  the  close  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  Many  of  these  institutions  offered 
a  curriculum  which  began  with  the  veriest  elements  of 
learning  and  ended  with  subjects  that  are  now  found  in 
the  colleges.  The  academies  early  adopted  the  practice 


72  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

of  grouping  the  work  into  departments;  as,  for  example, 
the  first  primary,  second  primary,  intermediate  depart- 
ment, grammar  department,  academic  department,  and 
collegiate  department.  Each  of  these  departments  in- 
cluded the  school  work  of  two  or  three  years.  Inasmuch 
as  the  entire  course  was  planned  to  occupy  the  time  from 
about  one's  eighth  or  ninth  year  of  age  up  to  his  eighteenth 
or  twentieth  year,  the  course  came  to  be  one  of  about 
ten  or  twelve  years  in  length.  Thus  the  academic  work 
of  two,  three,  or  four  years  came  to  rest  upon  a  pre-aca- 
demic  study  of  eight  or  nine  years. 

With  the  rise  of  public  union  schools  the  form  of  the 
academies  was  adopted  almost  unconsciously.  So,  also, 
was  the  nomenclature.  Gradually  the  expression  "  high 
school"  took  the  place  of  the  "academic  department," 
and  the  later  school  inherited  all  the  traditions,  ideals, 
and  customs  of  the  earlier  one.  Thus  it  was  that  tem- 
porary expediency,  followed  later  by  unreflecting  imi- 
tation and  blind  conservatism,  saddled  upon  America 
a  system  of  public  education  that  consists  almost  every- 
where of  a  high  school  of  four  years  resting  upon  an 
elementary  school  course  of  eight  or  nine  years.  Thus 
it  was  established  that  the  only  door  opening  into  the 
high  school  led  out  from  an  elementary  school  of  eight 
or  nine  years'  continuous  tuition.  There  was  no  alterna- 
tive course  offered — eight  years  to  get  ready  for  an  educa- 
tion and  then  four  to  acquire  the  education,  or  perchance 
to  prepare  further  for  an  education  that  was  still  remotely 
beyond. 

Not  until  recently  was  any  attention  given  to  individ- 
ual aptitudes  and  capacities.  Straight  ahead  for  at  least 
one  year  each  was  obliged  to  go,  advancing  one  stage 
to  continue  the  process,  or  else,  in  case  of  failure,  going 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        73 

drearily  over  the  former  course  another  year.  There  was 
no  differentiation;  all  subjects  were  demanded  of  every 
pupil,  whatever  were  his  ambitions  or  his  life's  plans. 
All  the  work  was  formal,  and,  to  the  majority  of  students, 
devitalized,  tedious,  and  aimless. 

Recent  Attempts  at  Improvement. — Only  within  the 
past  twenty  years  has  concerted  effort  been  made  to 
improve  these  conditions.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  old 
order  first  found  expression  in  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ten  in  1893.  An  enriched  curriculum,  a  flex- 
ible curriculum,  and  an  articulating  curriculum  were 
their  demands.  The  report  also  urged  the  extension  of 
certain  well-recognized  secondary  school  subjects  down 
into  the  elementary  grades,  the  departmentalizing  of  some 
work  below  the  high  school,  and  a  corps  of  better  trained 
teachers  employing  better  pedagogical  methods. 

The  committee  through  its  report  set  up  ideals.  Here 
and  there  serious  efforts  were  made  to  put  the  suggestions 
into  practice,  but  in  many  respects  improvement  has  been 
slow.  The  conviction  has  steadily  grown,  however,  that 
complete  reform  can  come  only  with  a  complete  reorgan- 
ization of  the  school  system.  A  six-year  course  for  the 
elementary  school  and  a  six-year  course  for  the  high 
school  is  the  slogan  for  the  more  recent  agitations.  To 
lend  support  to  this  proposal  the  National  Education 
Association,  in  1905,  appointed  a  standing  committee 
on  a  six-year  course  of  study  for  high  schools.  For  three 
successive  years  this  committee  has  made  an  annual  re- 
port, and  sentiment  is  rapidly  crystallizing  in  support  of 
the  above  plan. 

Objections  to  Present  System. — It  may  be  well  at  once 
to  present  the  indictment  made  against  our  present 
educational  system.  The  counts  are  as  follows:  (i)  The 


74  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

curriculum  is  overcrowded;  (2)  there  are  duplication  and 
waste  in  administration;  (3)  there  is  little  correlation  of 
subject-matter;  (4)  exaggerated  attention  is  given  to 
unessential  and  impracticable  topics;  (5)  many  topics 
now  presented  have  no  legitimate  place  in  any  curricu- 
lum; (6)  pupils  are  overworked;  (7)  the  course  of  study 
is  inflexible;  (8)  there  is  no  close  articulation  of  the 
elementary  school  with  the  high  school;  (9)  individual 
tastes  and  capacities  are  not  rightly  considered;  (10) 
promotions  are  based  upon  an  unsound  principle;  (n) 
discipline  is  unsuited  to  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
pupils;  (12)  teachers  are  improperly  equipped;  (13) 
pupils  are  influenced  by  too  few  different  personalities; 
(14)  methods  of  instruction  are  unpedagogical;  (15)  the 
study  of  many  secondary  subjects  is  postponed  beyond 
the  proper  time  for  their  best  presentation;  (16)  work 
is  not  effectively  vocational;  (17)  enormously  large  num- 
bers withdraw  from  school;  (18)  insufficient  attention  is 
paid  to  the  retarded  pupils  and  to  those  of  superior 
ability;  (19)  there  is  not  sufficient  hand  work;  (20)  spe- 
cific trade  instruction  is  lacking;  (21)  the  whole  system 
is  over-mechanized. 

This  is  the  bill  of  indictment.  It  is  being  examined 
point  by  point  by  the  grand  jury — the  people  of  the 
land — and  a  true  bill  is  being  found.  The  duty  de- 
volves upon  the  experts  in  education  to  prosecute  and 
to  correct. 

The  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades. — While  some  of  the 
alleged  unsatisfactory  conditions  are  to  be  found  through- 
out the  entire  system,  and  some  few  in  the  high  school 
alone,  the  great  plexus  of  evils  is  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  Here  is  the  great  battle-ground  of  edu- 
cational reform  to-day.  "Rearrange  the  work  and  ad- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        75 

ministration  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,"  say  the 
propagandists,  "and  readjust  the  other  grades  to  the 
reformed  plan  and  the  more  oppressive  evils  of  the  entire 
system  will  have  been  eradicated." 

Plans  for  Reorganization. — The  reorganization  and 
remodelled  administration  of  the  work  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades,  therefore,  constitutes  the  crux  of  the 
problem.  The  analysis  of  the  unsatisfactory  conditions 
found  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  of  redividing  the  pres- 
ent twelve-year  course,  six  grades  to  constitute  the  ele- 
mentary school,  and  six  the  high  school.  The  theory  is 
that  six  years  are  amply  sufficient  to  encompass  the  ele- 
mentary ground,  and  that  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
should  assume  the  character  of  the  high  school  and 
adopt  its  forms  and  methods.  In  addition  the  new  theory 
demands  that  the  work  of  these  upper  six  grades  shall 
be  reorganized  throughout.  What  in  detail  should  be 
the  plan  of  reorganization  thus  proposed,  and  what  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  will  issue? 

Distinction  Between  Elementary  and  Secondary  Edu- 
cation.— First,  what  constitutes  elementary,  and  what, 
secondary  education?  Dewey  asserts:  "The  aim  of  the 
elementary  school  is  wrong.  It  should  not  be  knowl- 
edge, but  to  organize  the  instincts  and  impulses  of  chil- 
dren into  working  interests  and  tools.  The  stress  should 
be  on  methods,  not  results.  Not  that  we  do  not  want 
results,  but  that  we  get  better  results  when  we  transfer  the 
emphasis  of  attention  to  the  problem  of  mental  attitude 
and  operation.  We  need  to  develop  a  certain  active 
interest  in  truth  and  its  allies,  a  certain  disposition  of 
inquiry,  together  with  a  command  of  the  tools  that 
make  it  effective,  and  to  organize  certain  modes  of  activity 
in  observation,  construction,  expression,  and  reflection. 


76  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Six  years  ought  to  be  enough  to  accomplish  this  task."  * 
Hanus  sums  it  up  as  follows: 

" The  special  aims  of  elementary  education  are:  (a)  >To 
nourish  the  mind  of  the  child  through  the  course  of  study 
which  should  comprise  an  orderly  presentation  of  the 
whole  field  of  knowledge  in  its  elements,  and  to  provide 
an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  all  his  powers,  mental, 
moral,  aesthetic,  manual,  or  constructive,  through  good 
instruction  and  wise  discipline;  (6)  to  guard  and  pro- 
mote his  normal  physical  health  and  development."  2 

Thus  it  appears  that  elementary  education,  besides 
promoting  and  strengthening  one's  physical  health,  has 
for  its  chief  aims  the  opening  of  the  mind  to  the  entire 
world  in  its  elements,  the  development  of  interests  in 
the  world  and  in  its  activities,  and  the  fostering  of  desir- 
able habits  of  mind  and  body.  It  should  emphasize 
chiefly  the  formal  aspects  of  education.  Its  mission  is 
to  prepare  for  further  school  work.  Its  end  is  extra  se. 
It  aims  not  at  knowledge  itself,  but  at  supplying  the  tools 
of  the  mind  and  at  inculcating  attitudes  and  habits  of 
mind  that  will  enable  the  individual  later  to  pursue 
knowledge  and  industry.  As  Dewey  says,  "Six  years 
ought  to  be  enough  to  accomplish  this  task."  Recent 
experiments  demonstrate  that,  in  many  cases  at  least, 
they  are. 

What  now  is  secondary  education?  To  this  question 
Hanus  replies:  "The  secondary  school  should  especially 
promote  the  discovery  and  development  of  each  pupil's 
dominant  interests  and  powers;  and  further,  it  should 
seek  to  render  these  interests  and  powers  subservient  to 
life's  serious  purposes,  and  also  to  the  possibility  of  par- 

1  School  Review,  vol.  i,  p.  18,  1903. 

'"Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values,"  p.  17. 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        77 

ticipation  in  the  refined  pleasures  of  life."  He  adds: 
"The  serious  purposes  of  life  are  first,  self-support,  or, 
when  this  is  unnecessary,  some  worthy  form  of  service; 
second,  intelligent  active  participation  in  human  affairs. 
.  .  .  The  refined  pleasures  of  life  are  found  in  the  ability 
to  participate  with  intelligence  and  appreciation  in  the 
intellectual  and  aesthetic  interests  of  cultivated  men."1 

E.  E.  Brown,  former  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  declares  the  "business  of  secondary  educa- 
tion" is  "to  raise  all  subjects  which  it  touches  to  the 
plane  of  science  by  bringing  all  into  the  point  of  view 
of  organizing  principles."  In  another  place  he  says  that 
the  purpose  of  secondary  education  is  "to  seek  an  under- 
standing of  the  living  growing  persons  who  go  to  school 
and  to  treat  them  in  a  way  to  promote  their  healthy 
growth.  .  .  .  This  is  on  one  side  leading  toward  individu- 
alism; it  demands  free  election  of  studies  and  individu- 
alized processes  of  instruction.  On  the  other  side  it  shows 
how  dependent  the  pupil  is  on  society.  Neither  the  fu- 
ture nor  wholly  the  present  are  our  concern,  but  both."2 

The  aim  of  secondary  education  is  conceived  by  Lid- 
deke  as  "an  elementary  knowledge  of  facts,  truths,  and 
laws  of  relation  in  the  domain  of  science,  history,  gov- 
ernment, and  literature;  a  fuller  development  of  loyalty 
to  the  bettering  influences,  culminating  in  due  time  in 
seriousness  of  purpose;  last  and  most  important,  depth 
of  insight,  sanity  of  judgment,  and  the  power  of  adapt- 
ing means  to  ends."3 

Here,  then,  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
secondary  education:  It  is  that  education  which  lays 

1  Ibid.,  p.  81. 

*  "Tendencies  in  Secondary  Education,"  School  Review,  vol.  9,  p.  446. 
'  School  Review,  vol.  12,  p.  636,  1904. 


78  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

stress  upon  gaining  a  systematically  arranged  content  01 
knowledge,  and  that  seeks  first  to  discover  for  each 
pupil  his  real  dominant  interests  and  aptitudes;  and, 
secondly,  so  to  train  and  develop  these  incipient  powers 
that  each  may  put  into  life  as  much  social  service  as  pos- 
sible, and  simultaneously  derive  from  life  as  much  per- 
sonal satisfaction  as  may  be.  Trained  individuality — 
that  is  the  end  and  aim  of  the  secondary  schools;  but  a 
trained  individuality  that  ever  recognizes  these  princi- 
ples: that  individual  progress  and  happiness  are  always 
dependent  upon  the  progress  and  happiness  of  all  the 
other  members  of  the  social  group,  that  whatever  serves 
the  best  interests  of  the  social  whole  serves  at  the  same 
time  the  best  interests  of  the  individuals  who  compose 
that  whole,  and  that  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
individuality  are  a  trained  and  accurate  judgment  and 
a  vigorous  persistent  will.  Active  social  co-operation, 
clear  judgment,  and  effective  execution  are,  however, 
produced  solely  through  the  repeated  exercise  of  these 
incipient  powers.  Hence  the  prime  function  of  the 
secondary  school  is  to  afford  abundant  opportunities  for 
the  development  of  these  processes. 

Result  of  Recognizing  the  Distinction. — The  realiza- 
tion of  these  principles  demands,  as  previously  suggested, 
that  the  high  school  curriculum  be  extensive  in  scope  and 
rich  in  content;  that  the  subject-matter  be  so  organized 
and  presented  as  to  reveal  its  essential  interrelations; 
that  the  administration  of  the  school  be  so  directed  as  to 
give  opportunity  for  self-discovery  and  self-development, 
and  that  such  agencies  and  methods  be  employed  as  will 
stimulate  to  some  worthy  form  of  social  service  and  fit 
each  individual,  at  least  in  a  general  way,  to  become  an 
efficient  worker  in  his  chosen  field. 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        79 

Proposed  Changes  in  Organization. — To  accomplish 
just  these  ends  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  agitations 
looking  to  a  modification  of  the  public  school  system. 
Moreover,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  a  reorgani- 
zation is  at  hand  and  that  it  is  about  to  adopt  the  essential 
features  of  the  equal  division  arrangement  of  grades. 
The  six  year  high  school  is  not  an  unknown  institution 
to-day,1  but  heretofore,  for  the  most  part,  it  has  arisen 
by  extending  the  scope  of  the  work  upward  to  include 
two  additional  years,  and  has  left  the  elementary  grades 
unaffected.  The  present  movement  seeks  to  extend  the 
scope  downward,  and  is  being  stimulated  by  current  re- 
forms made  in  European  countries  and  in  Japan.  Such 
a  plan  seems  feasible,  just,  and  advantageous.  Under  it 
the  first  six  grades  will  constitute  the  universal  school. 
In  the  second  six  years  differentiated  courses  leading  to 
various  goals  will  exist  side  by  side.  Here  the  scope  of 
the  work  will  be  as  wide  as  human  interests,  but  the 
principle  of  individual  election  of  subjects  will,  to  a 
considerable  degree,  have  to  be  established.  Here  will 
begin  the  training  in  choice,  the  training  of  the  judg- 
ment and  the  practical  will,  but  obviously  no  individual 
should  at  the  outset  be  given  carte  blanche  in  his  elec- 
tions. Power  and  strength  come  from  the  gradual  ex- 
ercise of  independence,  from  choices  supervised  through- 
out the  entire  course. 

Hence,  from  the  start  provision  should  be  made  for  at 
least  five  distinct  groups  of  pupils.  First,  there  will  be 
those  whose  abilities,  ambitions,  and  resources  will  lead 

1  In  1909  twenty-two  cities,  distributed  over  twelve  different  States, 
professed  to  have  their  high  schools  organized  on  the  basis  of  six  years. — • 
"  Report  of  the  Committee  on  a  Six  Year  Course  of  Study,"  Proc.  N.  E.  A ., 
1909,  p.  498. 


80  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

them  not  only  to  aim  at  completing  the  full  high  school 
course  of  six  years,  but  also  at  attaining  a  college  educa- 
tion as  well.  Secondly,  there  will  be  a  fairly  large  class 
whose  scholastic  interests  and  ambitions  will  lead  them  to 
pursue  systematic  study  no  further  than  high  school  grad- 
uation, but  who,  nevertheless,  may,  without  hardship, 
defer  the  choice  of  a  vocation  and  the  training  therefor 
until  after  graduation.  A  third  group  will  be  composed 
of  those  who  are  enabled  to  complete  the  high  school 
course,  but  whose  circumstances  necessitate  the  entrance 
upon  a  vocation  immediately  upon  leaving  school.  These 
must,  therefore,  receive  their  systematic  vocational  in- 
struction, if  at  all,  before  leaving  the  high  school. 

A  fourth  class  will  be  those  who  may  continue  their 
schooling  a  year  or  two  beyond  the  compulsory  school 
age,  but  who  probably  will  not  complete  the  entire  course. 
These,  like  those  in  class  three,  must  obtain  whatever 
practical  training  and  vocational  insight  they  are  to  re- 
ceive while  yet  in  the  public  schools,  and  must  obtain 
this  training  at  a  relatively  early  stage.  Finally,  there 
will  be  a  fifth  class,  a  very  large  class,  who  will  leave 
school  at  the  end  of  the  compulsory  school  age  and  go  at 
once  into  the  industries.  This  class  in  the  past  has  re- 
ceived least  consideration.  In  the  newer  regime  its  mem- 
bers will  be  put  on  a  parity  with  all  the  other  classes,  equal 
educational  opportunities  for  every  individual  in  the  state 
being  a  practical  ideal. 

New  Arrangement  of  High  School  Courses. — This 
grouping  suggests  that  the  work  of  the  newly  constructed 
high  school  must  correlatively  be  organized  into  at  least 
five  fundamental  courses  of  study.  These  are: 

(i)  The  College  Preparatory  Course,  offering  consider- 
able work  in  English,  foreign  languages,  mathematics, 


REORGANIZING   SECONDARY  EDUCATION        81 

science,  history,   manual  training,  and  other  academic 
branches. 

(2)  The  General  Course,  affording  opportunity  to  ex- 
plore many  fields  of  learning,  but  wisely  requiring  con- 
centrated attention  upon  at  least  one  of  them.     In  this 
course  would  also  naturally  fall  subjects  in  applied  arts 
for  girls,  and  domestic  science. 

(3)  The  Commercial  Course,  laying  emphasis  upon  the 
various  branches  that  relate  peculiarly  to  business  and  to 
commercial  interests  and  administration,  but  not  neglect- 
ing the  branches  essential  to  a  broad  general  outlook. 

(4)  The  Short  Business  or  Clerkship  Course,  giving  an 
opportunity  to  such  as  demand  it  to  fit  themselves  for 
positions  as  clerks,  stenographers/  and  secretaries  within 
the  maximum  period  of  four  years,  and  enabling  them 
thus  to  complete  their  schooling  at  the  end  of  the  tenth 
grade. 

(5)  The  Industrial   (or  Agricultural)    Course.     This 
course  would  doubtless  in  most  cities  have  to  be  differ- 
entiated into  four  sub-courses,  viz.: 

(a)  General  industrial  work  for  boys,  giving  a  training 
in  general  mechanics  for  those  whose  aim  is  to  work  in 
factories  with  machinery. 

.(&)  General  industrial  work  for  girls,  a  course  co-ordi- 
nate with  the  general  industrial  course  for  boys. 

(c)  Trades  instruction  for  boys,  giving  instruction  and 
training  to  such  as  will  own  their  own  tools  and  work  for 
themselves.     Here  would  be  found  such  instruction  as 
blacksmithing,  laundering,  and  tailoring. 

(d)  Trades  instruction  for  girls,  correlative  with  the 
trades  course  for  boys.     Here  would  be  taught  millinery, 
dress-making,  library  work,  nursing,  cigar  making,  and 
similar  vocations. 


82  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Place  of  Vocational  Instruction. — This  arrangement  of 
courses  frankly  recognizes  vocational  instruction  as  hav- 
ing a  legitimate  place  in  the  public  school  system.  Be- 
lieving, as  we  must,  in  the  democratic  principle  that  no 
person  can  ever  acquire  too  much  education  of  the  right 
kind,  and  believing,  further,  that  in  a  democratic  state 
every  member  should  be  given  equal  opportunities  to 
secure  an  education  commensurate  with  his  aptitudes 
and  ambitions,  we  must  of  necessity  believe  that  it  is 
incumbent  upon  the  state  and  to  its  own  best  interests 
that  it  provide  a  system  of  education  that  shall  appeal, 
through  its  varied  subject-matter,  to  every  class  of  in- 
dividuals. Not  to  do  this  would  savor  of  aristocracy, 
not  democracy. 

New  Methods  of  Organization. — If  the  work  of  public 
secondary  education  is  to  begin  with  the  seventh  grade, 
certain  changes  in  the  administration  of  the  schools  will 
be  necessitated.  There  are  four  distinct  methods  of 
organization  and  administration  that  may  be  employed. 
Each  offers  some  unique  advantages.  Each  lends  itself 
to  adoption  in  toto,  or  in  combination  with  the  essential 
elements  of  each  of  the  others.  These  four  methods  are: 

(1)  Continue  the  external  form  of  the  schools  as  it  is 
to-day,  but  introduce  into  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
the  principles  now  obtaining  in  the  administration  of  the 
high  school. 

(2)  Bring  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  into  the  high 
school  building,  and  organize  and  administer  all  work 
above  the  sixth  grade  as  a  unit,  both  respecting  external 
form  and  internal  operations. 

(3)  Make  a  complete  differentiation  of  schools  and  of 
subject-matter  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  seventh 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        83 

(4)  Group  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades  by 
themselves  as  a  junior  high  school,  and  the  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  twelfth  grades  by  themselves  as  a  senior  high  school. 

The  First  Method.— The  first  method  leaves  the  ele- 
mentary schools  outwardly  in  much  the  same  condition 
as  to-day.  Each  would  continue  to  serve  the  general 
educational  needs  of  the  district  in  which  it  is  located. 
Pupils  would  be  expected  to  complete  the  course  of  study 
in  the  neighborhood  school,  and  then,  if  they  so  chose,  to 
pass  to  the  high  school  building.  Nevertheless,  under 
the  new  plan  of  organization  the  general  principles  of 
administration  now  found  in  the  high  school  would  be 
carried  down  into  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the 
ward  schools.  Here  would  be  provided  a  modified  form 
of  departmental  teaching,  an  enriched  curriculum,  a 
closer  approach  to  the  idea  of  student  responsibility, 
greater  flexibility  in  promotion,  and  other  practices  char- 
acteristic of  secondary  education. 

A  system  of  this  kind  is  feasible  and  advisable  in  small 
towns  and  cities  that  are  relatively  homogeneous  in  char- 
acter and  interests.  In  communities  composed  of  hetero- 
geneous classes  possessed  of  widely  differing  interests, 
the  plan  offers  difficulties.  If,  however,  these  classes  are 
somewhat  segregated  geographically,  and  if  the  popula- 
tion of  the  town  is  such  as  to  require  the  employment  of 
several  elementary  school  buildings,  most  of  the  obstacles 
can  readily  be  overcome.  The  solution  obviously  will  be 
to  differentiate  the  work  among  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  the  various  elementary  schools.  In  each  school 
would  naturally  be  found  all  of  the  fundamental  subjects 
of  study,  but  beyond  these  each  school  might  well  be  or- 
ganized so  as  to  lead  to  a  more  or  less  definite  goal.  Thus, 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  one  building,  the 


84  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

preacademic  subjects  may  be  emphasized;  in  a  second 
building  elementary  commercial  studies  may  constitute 
the  centre  of  work,  and  in  a  third  building  attention  may 
be  given  largely  to  industrial  training. 

Naturally,  this  reorganization  of  the  work  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  would  require  some  correlative  changes 
in  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  upper  four 
grades.  Close  articulation  would  be  essential.  Other 
adjustments  would  also  be  necessitated.  The  problems, 
however,  which  arise  here  are  precisely  the  problems  that 
will  arise  in  connection  with  one  of  the  other  plans  for 
reorganization  and  may  be  considered  later.  It  is  clear, 
though,  that  this  entire  first  plan  is  full  of  objections.  It 
is  a  makeshift  at  best.  In  homogeneous  communities  of 
small  size  it  is  workable;  in  heterogeneous  communities 
of  larger  size  it  is  cumbrous  and  awkward.  Its  only 
claim  for  consideration  is  that  it  is  economical. 

The  Second  Method. — The  second  scheme  for  organiz- 
ing the  new  type  of  school  is  to  segregate  all  pupils  above 
the  sixth  grade  in  one  school  building,  the  high  school, 
and  there  organize  the  work  in  several  parallel  courses. 
This  plan  merely  takes  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  out 
of  their  present  setting  and  merges  them  with  the  present 
high  school.  They  thereby  are  brought  fully  under  the 
principles  of  administration  dominating  in  present-day 
secondary  education.  Departmental  teaching,  limited  elec- 
tion of  studies,  scientific  methods  of  instruction,  a  freer 
spirit  of  regulation  and  control,  all  are  to  be  henceforth 
the  birthright  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  students  as 
they  are  at  present  of  the  pupils  of  the  four  upper  grades. 

This  second  arrangement  is  adapted  to  the  conditions 
and  needs  of  towns  of  moderate  size.  Wherever  one  high 
school  building  can  accommodate  all  pupils  above  the 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION       85 

sixth  grade  the  plan  is  highly  commendable,  as  it  affords 
the  maximum  of  benefit  at  the  minimum  of  expense. 
Towns  of  8,000  inhabitants  or  less  can,  with  almost  no 
difficulties,  reorganize  their  school  systems  on  this  basis. 
The  efficiency  of  the  school  thus  reorganized  will  many 
times  repay  the  small  additional  expense  entailed. 

The  Third  Method. — In  the  third  alternative  scheme  a 
differentiation  in  aim,  in  subject-matter,  and  in  buildings 
is  implied  at  the  outset.  From  the  sixth  grade  the  ways 
diverge.  All  school  work  beyond  this  is  organized,  not  in 
separate  and  distinct  courses  within  a  single  school,  but 
in  separate  and  distinct  schools  themselves.  The  num- 
ber and  variety  of  these  is  obviously  to  be  determined  by 
the  demands  of  the  pupils.  This  plan  will  best  serve  the 
interests  of  the  large  city.  Ordinarily,  in  its  complete 
organization,  it  will  call  for  seven  distinct  types  of  schools. 
The  number  of  each  type  required  for  any  given  system 
will  depend,  of  course,  on  local  conditions.  These  seven 
general  types  are:  First,  the  college  preparatory  school; 
second,  the  engineering  school  (the  manual  training 
school);  third,  the  high  school  of  practical  arts  for  girls; 
fourth,  the  high  school  of  commerce;  fifth,  the  business 
school;  sixth,  the  trade  school  for  boys,  and  seventh,  the 
trade  school  for  girls.  In  some  sections  there  will  be 
need  for  a  school  of  still  different  type — the  agricultural 
high  school. 

Little  adverse  criticism  directed  against  this  system  is 
possible.  If  provision  be  made  for  the  free  choice  of  the 
type  of  school  to  be  attended;  if  attendance  on  classes  in 
two  or  more  schools  by  the  same  pupils  be  permitted,  or, 
on  application,  elected  subjects  be  incorporated  in  the 
curriculum  of  each  school;  and  if,  finally,  the  daily  trans- 
portation of  pupils  to  and  from  school  be  borne  by  the 


86  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

municipality  whenever  necessary,  this  plan  is  desirable. 
Whatever  may  be  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  other  plans, 
for  cities  like  Boston,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  and  San  Francisco  they  are  impracticable. 
Indeed,  for  any  city  of  100,000  inhabitants  or  more  this 
third  plan,  with  slight  modifications,  is  alone  feasible. 
The  charge  that  any  system  of  schools  which  seeks  to 
differentiate  the  work  in  separate  buildings  is  undemo- 
cratic, tending  to  introduce  class  distinction,  is  beside  the 
mark.  Providing  for  individual  aptitudes  and  interests 
under  separate  roofs  is  in  essence  no  different  from  pro- 
viding for  individual  aptitudes  and  interests  in  separate 
courses  of  study  under  the  same  roof.  To-day  the  field 
of  knowledge  is  wide;  the  demand  for  specialized  train- 
ing is  insistent.  Practically  the  two  interests  cannot  be 
made  to  coincide.  Differentiation  of  some  sort  is  inevi- 
table. It  is  immaterial  whether  this  take  place  between 
buildings,  between  courses  in  the  same  building,  or  be- 
tween recitation  classes  in  the  same  room. 

The  Fourth  Method. — The  fourth  scheme  of  reorgani- 
zation calls  for  the  division  of  the  six  high  school  grades 
into  two  equal  parts,  each  division  to  occupy  a  building 
by  itself  and  to  be  styled,  respectively,  the  junior  high 
school  and  the  senior  high  school.  This  plan  seemingly 
possesses  many  advantages  for  cities  and  towns  ranging 
in  population  from  8,000  to  100,000  inhabitants. 

Since,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  numbers  enrolled 
in  the  senior  school  will  always  be  smaller  than  those  in 
the  junior  school,  more  ample  provisions  must  necessarily 
be  made  for  the  latter.  In  cities  in  which  one  school  of 
each  class  will  meet  the  needs,  it  seems  advisable  that  the 
two  buildings  shall  be  located  in  close  proximity.  Where 
this  is  done,  the  more  advanced  school  will  continuously 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION       87 

serve  as  a  tangible,  visible  stimulus  to  the  pupils  of  the 
lower  school  Under  this  arrangement,  the  work  of  the 
junior  high  school  will  include  one  grade  that  will  fall 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law. 
Since  the  work  of  this  year,  however,  will  be  organized  as 
a  homogeneous  portion  of  a  continuous  course,  the  ten- 
dency of  the  pupils  to  withdraw  from  school  at  the  end 
of  the  compulsory  period  will  be  greatly  minimized. 
Moreover,  the  ideals  and  spirit  dominating  the  work  of 
the  senior  school  will,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  be  carried 
over  into  the  junior  school.  If,  in  addition,  a  close  artic- 
ulation be  established  between  the  courses  of  the  two 
schools,  and  if  no  special  official  recognition  be  given  to 
those  who  have  finished  the  compulsory  school  course 
and  no  "graduating  exercises"  be  held  at  that  time,  it  is 
safe  to  assume  that  many,  who  would  otherwise  abandon 
school  at  this  period,  will  be  encouraged  to  continue  their 
work,  not  only  to  the  end  of  the  junior  school  course,  but 
on  into  the  senior  high  school.  It  seems  certain  that  this 
idea  is  destined  to  become  popular.  Indeed,  it  is  already 
in  successful  operation  in  several  cities,  notably  Berkeley, 
California,  and  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  other  cities  are  seri- 
ously considering  its  adoption. 

.  In  many  towns  in  which  a  single  senior  high  school  will 
amply  serve  the  needs,  a  single  junior  high  school  will  not 
do  so.  In  these  cities  a  modified  plan,  incorporating  the 
usable  elements  from  each  of  the  other  three  plans,  will 
be  necessitated;  that  is,  two  or  more  junior  high  schools, 
offering  similar  or  differentiated  work,  as  local  interests 
may  dictate,  may  be  required.  Where  this  is  the  case, 
convenience  will  doubtless  demand  their  distribution  in 
the  various  sections  of  the  districts.  Each  of  these  four 
plans  possesses  peculiar  advantages  for  different  types  of 


88  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

cities.  The  dominating  principle  is,  however,  the  same, 
and  by  interpreting  and  applying  this  to  the  particular 
conditions,  equally  meritorious  and  efficient  systems  may 
be  secured. 

Equipment  of  Buildings.— Every  school  building — the 
junior  high  school,  senior  high  school,  and  the  inde- 
pendent high  school — should  be  provided  with  assembly 
halls,  gymnasiums,  class  rooms,  libraries,  laboratories,  art 
rooms,  museums,  and  conservatories.  Every  junior  high 
school,  every  elementary  school  used  by  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  and  every  differentiated  high  school  offer- 
ing work  in  the  manual  arts  or  in  the  trades  should,  in 
addition,  possess  ample  facilities  for  much  handwork  for 
both  boys  and  girls.  All  schools  should  be  provided  with 
out-of-door  recreation  grounds  or  athletic  fields,  supplied 
with  all  necessary  apparatus,  and  presided  over  by  skilled 
directors  of  sports. 

Supervision  of  Elections. — The  administration  of  the 
work  within  any  of  these  schools  need  not  differ  from  the 
administration  to-day  employed  in  the  best  four-year 
high  schools.  The  principle  of  large  individual  election 
of  studies  must,  of  necessity,  pretty  generally  prevail. 
Certain  fundamental  branches  may  rightly  be  required 
in  every  course,  and  in  almost  every  grade  in  the  course. 
For  the  rest,  youthful  judgment  should  be  supervised, 
guided,  and  directed. 

Time  may  well  be  taken  at  the  beginning  of  every 
school  year  to  consult  seriously  and  sympathetically  with 
every  pupil  respecting  his  aims,  ambitions,  and  choice  of 
studies.  For  this  purpose  an  advisory  committee  should 
be  formed  for  every  single  individual.  By  this  com- 
mittee the  curriculum  of  every  pupil  should  be  analyzed 
and,  if  necessary,  remodelled,  As  members  of  this  com- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION       89 

mittee  should  invariably  be  found  the  following  persons: 
(i)  The  student  himself,  who  should  be  encouraged  to  give 
free  expression  to  his  ambitions,  purposes,  and  likes;  (2) 
the  parent,  parents,  or  guardian  of  the  student,  who  should 
make  known  the  parental  desires,  the  resources  at  the 
student's  service,  and  the  co-operation  that  may  be  ex- 
pected from  the  home;  (3)  the  pupil's  former  teacher,  or 
teacher-adviser,  who  should  be  able  to  present  a  fair  judg- 
ment of  his  abilities,  aptitudes,  and  habits;  (4)  the  pro- 
spective teacher,  or  teacher-adviser,  who  should  know  the 
difficulties  that  lie  before  him  and  should  be  able  to  advise 
respecting  them,  and  (5)  the  principal  of  the  school,  who, 
as  moderator,  should  harmonize  the  conflicting  or  varied 
considerations  and  direct  the  boy  along  the  course  best 
suited  to  his  needs.  The  administration  of  a  project  of 
this  kind  will  require  time,  patience,  and  judgment,  but 
it  can  be  made  of  inestimable  value.  If  necessary,  the 
whole  month  of  August  (or  late  June  and  early  July) 
should  be  devoted  to  this  work  rather  than  that  it  should 
not  be  done  at  all,  and  adequate  special  compensation 
should  be  provided  for  such  services. 

Importance  of  Departmental  Teaching. — In  each  type 
of  the  newly  organized  secondary  schools  departmental 
teaching  should  invariably  be  provided  for  every  grade. 
The  reasons  for  this  change  are  obvious.  No  teacher, 
however  well  adapted  for  her  work  by  nature,  or  however 
well  prepared  by  training,  can  teach  a  variety  of  subjects 
equally  well.  There  must  be  concentration  of  effort. 
The  really  efficient  teacher  requires  time  for  intensive 
and  extensive  preparation  for  each  lesson,  and  energy  for 
vitalizing  class-room  procedure,  for  disposing  of  routine 
duties,  and  for  inspirational  reading,  social  intercourse, 
and  relaxation,  These  means  to  continued  growth  are 


90  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

imperative  for  all.  The  more  experienced  and  skilful  a 
teacher  becomes,  the  more  fully  are  these  truths  recog- 
nized and  the  more  completely  are  they  realized.  Trained 
skill  alone  can  never  produce  a  teacher  of  highest  merit 
and  power,  but  for  successful  teaching  of  adolescents 
specialized  training  and  expert  knowledge  are  absolutely 
essential.  Before  the  inquiring  critical  mind  of  the  de- 
veloping youth  no  teacher  can  stand  firmly  who  cannot 
inspire  pupils  with  the  confidence  which  a  mastery  of 
the  situation  affords.  Departmental  teaching  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  can  insure  the  high  standard  of 
scholarship  which  is  an  obvious  professional  necessity. 

By  departmentalizing  this  work,  other  highly  desirable 
qualities  in  teachers  can  be  assured.  By  making  the 
salaries  of  the  teachers  of  these  two  grades  from  ten  to 
twenty  per  cent  higher  than  the  salaries  of  the  teachers 
of  any  other  grades  in  the  system,  qualified  candidates 
will  soon  be  available.  The  new  recruit,  the  mediocre 
teacher  of  experience,  and  the  cold,  egoistic  specialists 
may  be  tolerated  on  the  instructional  staffs  of  youths 
whose  school  habits  have  been  somewhat  definitely  fixed, 
whose  course  in  school  has  been  pretty  clearly  determined, 
and  who  have  acquired  a  fair  degree  of  independence, 
judgment,  and  self-direction.  But  from  junior  high 
schools  these  types  of  instructors  should  be  rigidly  barred. 
Many  pupils  will  be  lost  to  the  schools  during  the  ado- 
lescent age  under  the  best  of  conditions,  but  inspiring 
teachers,  much  handwork,  and  much  physical  exercise 
and  play  should  reduce  the  loss  to  a  minimum. 

There  are  additional  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
this  departmentalization.  First,  such  an  arrangement 
permits  pupils  daily  to  come  under  the  influence  of  several 
dominating  personalities.  Child  nature  is  extremely  im- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        91 

pressionable.  One  all-powerful  influence  at  this  time 
may  set  the  form  beyond  reshaping,  whereas  the  influence 
of  several  personalities  with  their  inevitable  elements  of 
difference  will  tend  to  harmonious  development.  One- 
sidedness  in  early  youth,  however  noble  the  controlling 
characteristic,  is  undesirable. 

The  departmental  organization  likewise  helps  to  satisfy 
the  inherent  impulse  for  movement.  Pupils  at  this  stage 
demand  change  of  environment,  change  of  bodily  posture, 
and  variety  of  teaching  methods.  Under  the  depart- 
mental system  the  passage  of  pupils  from  room  to  room, 
the  changes  in  environment  found  in  those  rooms,  and  the 
differences  in  voice,  manner,  and  methods  of  the  several 
teachers  provide  needed  variation  in  school  life.  Under 
it  a  freer  discipline  than  exists  at  present  is  possible.  To- 
day when  one  division  of  the  pupils  is  required  to  be  inde- 
pendently occupied  at  their  seats  while  a  second  section 
is  engaging  the  immediate  attention  of  the  teacher,  an 
approach  to  military  discipline  is  inevitable.  This  dam- 
per on  social  intercourse  frequently  stifles  interest  and 
checks  natural  development. 

Self -Activity  the  True  Principle  of  Growth. — The  true 
principle  of  growth  has,  in  theory,  long  been  recognized 
as  that  of  self-activity.  The  true  aim  of  any  school  is 
gradually  to  transform  the  dependent  being  into  the  inde- 
pendent, self-directive  individual.  Independence  comes, 
however,  from  the  exercise  of  power,  not  from  its  repres- 
sion. Prolonged  dependence  is  destructive  of  personal 
judgment  and  personal  initiative.  Under  a  system  in 
which  this  principle  holds  sway  there  can  be  no  sponta- 
neous nor  perfect  growth.  Activity  here  receives  its 
stimulus  from  without;  and  weakness,  not  strength;  tim- 
idity, not  courage;  a  tendency  to  uniformity,  not  indi- 
viduality, ensue.  The  exaggerated  employment  of  this 


92  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

principle  accounts  in  no  small  degree  for  that  abuse  of 
freedom  witnessed  so  often  among  boys  and  girls  as  soon 
as  they  emerge  from  the  system.  They  are  wholly  inca- 
pable of  wisely  assuming  responsibilities  when  external 
authority  is  removed.  The  new  plan  offers  facilities  for 
obviating  these  evils  of  discipline.  Under  it  much  of  the 
free  spirit,  order,  and  motivation  that  characterize  adult 
social  intercourse  can  be  introduced,  and  gradually  the 
pupil  may  be  trained  in  self-direction.  Social  co-opera- 
tion becomes  the  key  word  of  the  system. 

Advantages  of  New  Plan. — Again,  the  proposed  scheme 
of  reorganization  will  render  the  administration  of  school 
work  much  more  flexible.  To-day  the  administration  of 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  too  often  criminally  rigid. 
Promotion  is  commonly  made  by  grade,  or  half-grade  at 
the  best.  Little  account  is  taken  of  the  peculiar  interests 
and  talents  of  any  pupil.  Pupils  who  fail  to  attain  the 
required  standard  in  one  subject  are  declared  to  have 
failed  in  all,  and  are  forced  to  repeat  the  work  of  the  en- 
tire grade,  or  half-grade.  The  youth  of  exceptional  ver- 
satility and  capacity  is  kept  back  with  the  rest.  Such  a 
process  is  deadening  to  any  full-blooded  individual.  An 
aenemic,  timid,  plodding  boy  may  accept  the  unjust  re- 
quirement without  question,  but  he  is  injured  neverthe- 
less. The  repetition  of  a  dull  routine  from  which  all  zest 
of  novelty  has  been  taken  merely  intensifies  his  subservi- 
ence and  stifles  his  curiosity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  vig- 
orous, individualistic,  active  boy  recognizes  the  injustice 
and  resents  it.  External  force  alone  can  then  longer  keep 
him  in  school,  and  even  so,  initiative  will  have  been 
blunted,  interest  cooled,  and  accomplishments  reduced. 

Under  the  proposed  plan  promotions  can  be  made  semi- 
annually  or  quarterly  by  subject.  Moreover,  in  large 
schools  with  many  sections  in  the  same  subject  it  permits 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        93 

the  organization  of  classes  for  the  supernormal  (the  A 
section),  the  normal  (the  B  section),  and  the  subnormal 
(the  C  section).  By  setting  the  class  periods  of  the  three 
sections  all  at  the  same  hour  transference  from  one  sec- 
tion to  another  will  be  easy.  Thus,  for  illustration,  a 
pupil  especially  apt  in  mathematics,  good  in  history,  but 
of  mediocre  ability  in  English  could  enter  the  A  section 
in  the  first,  the  B  section  in  the  second,  and  the  C  sec- 
tion in  the  third.  His  continued  membership  in  any  of 
these  sections  would  be  dependent  on  his  progress  in  that 
particular  subject.  In  this  manner  there  would  be  nei- 
ther undue  advancement  nor  unjust  retardation.  Each 
pupil  would  proceed  through  the  course  as  rapidly  as  his 
capacities  and  efforts  would  permit,  or  as  slowly  as  his 
limitations  necessitated. 

In  the  lengthened  school  course  many  really  secondary 
subjects  can  be  begun  one  or  two  years  earlier  than  is 
now  generally  possible,  and  can  be  continued  till  they  will 
have  yielded  fuller  benefits.  Ancient  languages,  especially 
Latin;  modern  foreign  languages;  the  simpler  processes 
of  algebra  and  geometry;  elementary  science;  element- 
ary sociology;  political  economy  and  civil  government, 
and,  probably,  the  elements  of  other  so-called  advanced 
subjects,  can  best  be  begun  in  the  seventh  grade.  Edu- 
cational psychologists  and  many  foreign  authorities  assure 
us  that  the  best  time  for  beginning  the  study  of  these 
branches  is  at  the  dawning  of  the  adolescent  period.  In 
England  and  Germany  boys  commonly  begin  the  study 
of  algebra  and  geometry  as  early  as  their  eleventh  or 
twelfth  year,  and  seem  to  find  no  insurmountable  diffi- 
culties. In  fact,  they  often  come  to  possess  a  firmer  grasp 
of  the  subjects  than  do  the  majority  of  the  graduates  of 
our  high  schools.  Beginning  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guage in  the  early  stages  of  adolescence  is  especially  desir- 


94  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

able.  Then  the  language  can  be  taken  up  naturally,  as 
a  native  youth  would  begin  it.  Then  simple  conversa- 
tion and  the  reading  and  writing  of  simple  familiar  words 
and  sentences  can  constitute  the  methods  of  attack,  where- 
as the  sensitive  self-consciousness  of  later  life  renders  such 
a  procedure  difficult. 

At  this  early  age,  too,  pupils  are  intensely  interested  in 
the  larger  and  more  generally  familiar  questions  of  nat- 
ural science,  sociology,  and  political  economy.  This  is 
the  period  for  presenting  to  them  the  entire  world  in  its 
elements  and  for  inculcating  in  them  desirable  habits  of 
reaction  toward  its  various  forms  and  institutions.  Here 
is  the  proper  time  for  introducing  an  elemental  knowledge 
of  sex  and  sex  hygiene.  Here  properly  belong  also  the 
beginnings  of  vocational  instruction,  and,  for  many,  the 
beginnings  of  vocational  training  itself.  Indeed,  the  only 
credentials  of  eligibility  any  subject  should  be  forced  to 
bring  should  be :  Will  its  incorporation  in  the  curriculum 
meet  a  real  demand  or  fill  a  felt  need  ? 

Guiding  Principles  in  Administering  Reorganized 
School. — What  shall  be  the  guiding  principles  for  admin- 
istering a  reorganized  school  of  this  kind?  The  answer 
is  in  part  implied  in  reasserting  that  there  shall  be  an  en- 
riched curriculum,  with  a  wide  range  of  elective  subjects, 
and  departmentalized  grade  work.  In  addition  the  old- 
time  recitation  period  will  require  modification.  In  the 
past  too  great  an  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  memoriz- 
ing facts,  whereas  the  function  of  the  school  is  to  develop 
mental  power  and  to  habituate  the  possessor  to  applying 
this  power  to  serviceable  ends.  There  will  always  be  a 
place  for  the  drill  lesson,  but  it  must  no  longer  be  per- 
mitted to  monopolize  school  work.  Preceding  or  supple- 
menting it  must  be  frequent  study  recitations  in  which  the 
subject  is  developed  and  mastered  under  the  supervision 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        95 

of  the  teacher.  Simultaneously  or  consecutively  ample 
opportunities  must  be  provided  for  converting  this  knowl- 
edge into  faculty.  No  longer  should  impression  be  di- 
vorced from  expression. 

Increased  Burden  of  Teacher. — All  this  implies  that 
henceforth  a  much  greater  burden  of  the  school  work  must 
be  borne  by  the  teacher.  "Hearing  lessons  recited"  will 
constitute  but  a  minor  function.  Henceforth  the  teacher 
must  teach,  and  teaching  calls  for  an  inexhaustible  supply 
of  resourcefulness,  tact,  and  knowledge.  Henceforth  cor- 
relation and  vitalization  must  be  fetishes  of  the  class  room. 
Instruction,  questioning,  criticism,  exposition,  sugges- 
tion, example — all  must  be  employed,  but  none  of  them 
to  the  detriment  of  pupil  initiative  and  co-operation. 
Moreover,  while  correlation  with  kindred  or  similar  facts 
of  other  school  branches  is  excellent,  constant  correlation 
of  school  work  with  the  pupil's  life  experiences  is  indis- 
pensable. 

The  Curriculum. — The  curriculum  of  the  sfx  year  school 
must  obviously  include  fundamental  subjects  required  of 
all  pupils  and  optional  studies  open  to  individual  election. 
What  branches  shall  be  constants  and  what  variables  must 
of  necessity  depend  somewhat  upon  local  conditions  and 
on  the  specific  aims  of  the  school.  Two  general  principles 
should,  however,  be  operative  everywhere.  First,  each 
pupil  leaving  school,  at  whatever  stage,  must  be  given  a 
systematic,  many-sided,  functioning  education  that  is  im- 
perfect only  in  the  sense  that  it  is  incomplete;  and  sec- 
ondly, he  must  have  received  in  addition  a  somewhat 
special  training  in  a  limited  range  of  knowledge  or  activ- 
ity. That  is,  each  pupil  must  have  a  somewhat  sharp 
focal  point  in  school  life  and  a  relatively  extended  mar- 
ginal boundary  radiating  from  it. 


96  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Such  an  ideal,  therefore,  calls  for  a  clearer  classification 
of  subject-matter.  The  departments  of  knowledge  that 
should  find  place  in  the  new  programme  of  studies  are: 

1.  English  language  and  literature. 

2.  History,  civics,  and  geography. 

3.  Ethics  and  sociology. 

4.  Mathematics. 

5.  Ancient  foreign  languages. 

6.  Modern  foreign  languages. 

7.  Physical  and  biological  sciences. 

8.  Physiology  and  hygiene. 

9.  Business  administration  and  commerce. 

10.  Commercial  work. 

11.  Mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing. 

12.  Manual  training  (for  boys). 

13.  Home  economics,  domestic  science,  and  art  (for 

girls). 

14.  Music  and  fine  art. 

15.  Voice  culture,  public  speaking,  and  dramatics. 

1 6.  Physical  training. 

17.  Agriculture  and  horticulture. 

18.  Industrial  training. 

19.  Elementary  philosophy. 

This  curriculum,  as  extensive  in  scope  as  that  of  many 
a  college,  is  advocated  because  the  theory  frankly  recog- 
nizes the  six-year  high  school  as  a  people's  college.  With- 
in many  of  the  departments  here  mentioned  should  also 
be  found  a  further  recognition  of  the  fact  that  there  must 
be  a  differentiation  of  content  and  of  methods  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  various  social  classes.  Thus,  the  work  in 
English  language  and  literature  should  certainly  be  some- 
what different  for  the  boy  preparing  for  college  and  for 
the  one  pursuing  a  commercial  course  or  for  the  one  seek- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        97 

ing  to  prepare  himself  for  a  particular  industry  or  trade. 
The  same  is  true  of  mathematics,  history,  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  other  branches.  This  differentiation  may 
come  (in  small  schools  it  must  come)  in  the  regular  class- 
room work  itself.  It,  however,  may  come  within  divisions 
or  sections  of  pupils  pursuing  the  same  branch  of  study 
in  the  same  school;  or,  finally  the  differentiation,  as  for- 
merly suggested,  may  come  between  schools. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  each  pupil's  course  of 
study  should  include:  (i)  English;  (2)  history,  civics,  and 
geography;  (3)  ethics  and  sociology;  (4)  physiology  and 
hygiene;  (5)  mathematics  (including  arithmetic,  algebra, 
and  geometry) ;  (6)  elementary  science;  (7)  manual  train- 
ing (or  household  economics,  domestic  science,  and  arts) ; 
(8)  music  and  fine  art;  (9)  drawing;  (10)  voice  culture, 
public  speaking,  and  dramatics;  and  (n)  physical  train- 
ing. In  addition  opportunity  should  be  given  for  one  or 
two  or  three  elective  studies. 

Obviously  a  course  of  study  of  this  scope  will  require 
the  abandonment  of  the  old-time  practice  of  devoting  five 
class  periods  per  week  to  each  subject.  Indeed,  edu- 
cational theory  advocates  this.  Psychological  investiga- 
tion has  clearly  shown  the  desirability  of  intense  but  non- 
continuous  mental  stimulation.  Under  it  there  is  secured 
an  economy  of  mental  effort,  a  greater  variety  and  per- 
manence of  associations,  more  mental  discipline,  and  a 
clearer  and  a  more  adequate  comprehension  of  the  sub- 
ject. This  fact  is  peculiarly  true  with  respect  to  all 
studies  that  call  for  considerable  perspective.  Time  is 
required  for  assimilation.  By  alternating  periods  of  rest 
with  periods  of  intensified  attack,  associations  are  multi- 
plied and  correlations  strengthened.  European  peoples 
have  for  years  acted  upon  this  principle. 


98  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Study  Under  Supervision. — Correspondingly  this  change 
in  hours  of  recitation  demands  a  lengthened  school  day. 
Home  study,  as  it  is  now  planned  and  administered  in 
America,  is  not  assured,  effective,  or  economical.  The 
proper  place  for  learning  lessons  is  in  the  school  under  the 
supervision  of  trained  experts,  not  in  the  home  amidst 
confusion  with  little  or  no  co-operation  or  aid.  Rela- 
tively few  adults  possess  the  capacity  and  energy  to  sit 
down  and  apply  themselves  to  mental  tasks  that  require 
undivided  attention  and  individual  effort  through  a  long 
period  of  time.  The  immature  youth  cannot  be  expected 
to  do  so. 

The  great  majority  of  one's  ideas,  habits,  and  feelings 
are  prompted  by  force  of  suggestion,  example,  and  instruc- 
tion. Original  thought  and  uninspired  initiative  are  al- 
most unknown.  It  follows  that  the  greater  the  oppor- 
tunity for  study  under  expert  supervision,  with  this  fund 
of  suggestions,  examples,  expositions,  the  greater  will  be 
the  progress  made.  A  school  day  that  affords  two  or  three 
hours  for  study  of  this  kind  is  much  to  be  desired.  In- 
deed, an  academic  day  extending  from  8.30  A.  M.  till  4  p.  M. 
(with  a  noon  intermission  of  moderate  length)  seems  to  be 
feasible  and  desirable.  In  addition  to  this  a  recreation 
day  extending  from  4  to  5.30,  in  which  supervised  phys- 
ical training  and  athletic  sports  shall  be  required  of  all, 
constitutes  a  workable  ideal.  Under  such  a  system  home 
study  can  be  eliminated  or  at  least  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Suggestive  Course  of  Study. — An  acceptance  of  the 
salient  principles  above  suggested  will  lead  to  the  adop- 
tion for  our  reorganized  secondary  school  of  a  course  of 
study  that  is  at  the  same  time  extensive,  intensive,  and 
practical.  Such  a  suggestive  course  of  study  is  herewith 
presented. 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION        99 


A  SUGGESTED  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES  FOR  A 
SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


SUBJECTS 

GRADES 

TOTAL 

GRADUATE 
WORK 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

13 

BODES  PER  WEEK 

i.  English  and  Literature  — 
2.  History,  Civics,  and  Geog. 
3.  Ethics  and  Sociology.  .  .  . 
4.  Mathematics:       Arith-  ] 
metic,  Algebra,Geom.  > 
and  Trigonometry..  .  j 
5.  Ancient  Languages: 
(o)  Latin  

*4 
*3 

*2 

*4 
4 

*4 
*3 

*2 

*4 
4 

*4 
*3 

*2 

*4 
4 

*4 
3 

3 

4 
4 

3 
3 
3 
t6 

t6 

t6 

4 
t8 

4 

2 

I 
2 

t8 
t8 

3 

3 

3 

3 
4 

3 
3 

2 

t8 
t8 

t6 

4 
tio 

4 

2 

I 
2 

t8 
t8 

3 
3 

3 

3 
3 

3 

2 
2 

t8 
i 
t8 

t6 

4 

fio 

4 

2 

I 
2 

t8 
t8 

2 

22 

18 

6 
21 

22 
II 

21 

16 

II 

32 

7 
34 

3<> 

20 
40 

21 
12 

9 

12 
38 

39 

2 

:A 

1 

^S 

"5. 

E 

• 

<a 

•s 

1 

1 

1 

J5 
>, 
§ 
.S 
•fi 

i 

^ 

i 

(b)  Greek  

6.  Modern      Foreign     Lan- 
guages:    (a)  German.  . 
(b)  French  

4 

4 

4 

4 
4 
4 

t6 

*2 

t6 

t6 

4 
t6 

4 

2 

2 

*2 

t8 
t8 

(c)  Spanish  

7.  Phys.  and  Biological  Sci. 
8.  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 
9.  Manual  Train,  (for  boys) 
10.  Home    Economics,    Do- 
mestic    Science     and 
Arts  (for  girls)  

*2 

*2 

*3 
*3 

2 

3 

*2 
*2 

*2 
*2 

3 
3 

*2 
*2 

*3 
*3 

2 

3 
3 

*2 

*2 
*2 

3 

t4 

n.  Business  Administration 
and  Commerce  

12.  Commercial  Work  

13.  Mechanical    and    Free- 
hand Drawing  

14.  Music  and  Fine  Arts  .  .  . 
15.  Voice     Culture,     Public 
Speaking,   Dramatics  . 
16.  Physical  Training  

17.  Agriculture   and   Horti- 
culture   

18.  Industrial  Training  
19.  Elementary  Philosophy. 

28J 

26J 

i7t 

4 

oj 

ot 

*  Required  subjects.  t  Double  periods  with  laboratory  work. 

i  Indicates  elective  subjects  may  be  added. 


100  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  New  Plan  Compared. 
— These,  then,  constitute  the  salient  motives,  principles, 
and  plans  for  reorganizing  the  high  school  in  America. 
The  newer  ideal  possesses  many  improvements  and  ad- 
vantages over  the  present  four-year  school.  Does  it  also 
offer  difficulties  and  disadvantages  ?  Some,  but  these  are 
of  little  weight  compared  with  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  the  adoption  of  the  reconstructed  plan. 

First,  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system,  as  sug- 
gested, will  require  some  additional  expenditure,  both  at 
the  transition  stage  and  afterward  in  administration  and 
maintenance.  Welt  equipped,  well  administered  high 
schools  cost  more  than  elementary  schools.  But  the  in- 
creased benefits  (if  we  trust  psychology,  pedagogy,  and 
experience)  are  well  worth  the  extra  burden.  What  in- 
creased tax  levy  can  outweigh  even  one  superior  boy  who 
may  thus  be  discovered,  aroused,  and  moulded  for  large 
social  service?  Penurious  economy  in  school  work  is 
false  economy.  There  is  no  product  America  produces 
that  is  so  valuable  as  its  trained  boys  and  girls.  Many 
of  the  weaknesses  and  inefficiencies  of  our  schools  to-day 
are  traceable  directly  to  the  stupid  parsimony  of  the  school 
boards,  and  to  hazy  conceptions  of  school  administration. 

Moreover,  no  school  should  inaugurate  this  reorgani- 
zation abruptly.  By  incorporating  one  element  at  a  time 
as  rapidly  as  circumstances  will  permit,  the  entire  ideal 
can,  in  a  relatively  short  period,  be  actualized.  Hun- 
dreds of  schools  have  already  taken  one  or  more  steps 
in  this  general  direction.  Departmental  teaching  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  no  longer  uncommon.  The 
organization  of  the  eighth  grade  with  the  high  school, 
making  it  conform  to  these  ideals  and  regulations,  is  an 
accomplished  fact  in  many  cities  and  towns.  An  en- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      101 

riched  curriculum  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  to- 
day somewhat  general,  while  promotions  by  subjects  and 
extra-term  promotions  are  frequent. 

Although  the  transition  from  the  old  organization  to  the 
new  is,  at  least  for  our  cities  and  towns,  no  difficult  mat- 
ter, in  rural  districts  the  facilities  for  thus  reorganizing 
the  school  system  are  not  so  good.  Even  here,  however, 
the  obstacles  are  not  insurmountable.  The  old-type  dis- 
trict school  is  obsolete  in  theory  if  not  in  fact.  It  once 
served  a  social  need  and  served  it  moderately  well.  In 
few  compact  communities  to-day  is  it  either  economical  or 
adequate.  Consolidated  schools  have  in  many  States  taken 
its  place,  and  no  one  who  studies  the  situation  carefully 
can  doubt  that  the  consolidated  or  township  school  can 
advantageously  be  established  in  many  other  districts. 

In  consolidated  or  township  schools  an  organization  in 
harmony  with  the  plan  recommended  could  be  put  into 
operation  with  no  greater  difficulty  than  in  towns  or  cities. 
Indeed,  the  consolidated  school  becomes  virtually  a  town 
school.  Transportation  of  pupils  at  public  expense  has 
already  been  provided  in  numerous  instances.  It  works 
no  greater  hardship  upon  pupils,  and  places  no  greater 
burden  of  taxation  upon  citizens  than  the  old-time  dis- 
trict schools.  Consolidated  schools  (even  as  they  exist 
to-day)  are  vastly  superior  in  efficiency  to  those  they  have 
displaced. 

Nevertheless  it  would  be  unwise  for  each  consolidated 
school  to  offer  a  curriculum  as  extensive  in  scope  as  the 
best  city  schools  may  well  do.  Here,  as  in  the  towns, 
differentiation  must  be  employed.  One  consolidated 
school  may,  however,  emphasize  agriculture,  an  adjacent 
township  school  may  lay  stress  on  commercial  branches, 
a  third  may  offer  more  thorough  academic  training.  By 

if*  -(3t 

«AWTA  BAPBAKA.    CAL  ; 


_~ 


J 


102  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

a  system  of  county  and  State  supervision  and  by  a  regula- 
tion permitting  pupils  who  have  attained  the  seventh 
grade  to  be  transferred,  at  county  expense,  from  a  school 
of  one  type  to  a  school  of  another  type,  in  which  are  offered 
the  studies  he  desires  to  pursue,  the  opportunity  for  the 
country  boy  or  girl  to  receive  an  education  in  keeping  with 
his  or  her  taste  and  needs  will  have  been  made  as  com- 
plete as  it  is  for  the  city  youth. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  it  seems  clear  that 
the  reorganized  plan  would  hold  more  pupils  in  school 
for  a  longer  period;  would  better  prepare  every  type  of 
student  for  whatever  further  study  he  might  undertake, 
or  for  whatever  vocation  in  life  he  might  choose;  would 
ameliorate  the  disciplinary  and  administrative  burdens  of 
all  school  officials;  would  make  our  system  of  education 
more  nearly  consistent  with  the  well-established  theories 
and  facts  of  psychology,  physiology,  and  pedagogy,  and 
would  be  in  harmony  with  the  best  practices  of  the  more 
advanced  peoples  of  the  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  movement  looking  toward  an  organization  with 
the  essential  features  similar  to  the  ones  above  outlined 
is  gaining  momentum.  I  append  the  convictions  of  two 
well-known  leaders. 

Mr.  A.  S.  Draper,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 
State  of  New  York,  in  an  address  before  the  Massachu- 
setts Teachers'  Association,  November  26,  1909,  spoke  in 
part  as  follows: 

"  We  believe  that  very  generally  the  courses  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  are  too  much  prolonged,  that  the  grades 
and  the  years  are  more  than  need  be,  that  some  unneces- 
sary branches  are  included,  and  that  some  others  are  too 
attenuated,  and  that  there  are  often  more  grades  of  text- 
books than  are  desirable  in  one  branch. 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      103 

"Therefore,  we  shall  soon  recommend  an  elementary 
course  of  study  with  but  six  grades  and  nominally  occu- 
pying six  years,  instead  of  eight,  in  the  confidence  that  it 
will  be  more,  rather  than  less,  educationally  efficient. 

"  We  would  follow  this  great  and  universal  elementary 
school  system,  so  simplified  and  strengthened,  with  a  sys- 
tem of  secondary  schools,  which  for  the  present,  and  in 
our  State,  shall  be  distinctly  separated  at  the  very  begin- 
ning into  three  great  classes:  first,  the  present  literary 
high  school;  second,  commercial  or  business  schools,  and 
third,  general  industrial  or  trade  schools. 

"  The  schools  of  the  third  branch  are  of  immediate  in- 
terest now.  We  propose  that  they  occupy  buildings  that 
look  like  shops;  that  they  be  taught  by  workmen  who 
can  teach  rather  than  by  teachers  with  a  little  mechanical 
skill;  that  to  a  moderate  extent  they  use  books  which  are 
really  germane  to  the  work  to  be  taught,  but  that  their 
main  instruments  be  machinery  and  tools — that  they  be 
much  more  shoppish  than  bookish.  We  propose  that 
these  schools  be  of  two  general  classes,  namely,  general 
industrial  schools,  training  in  general  mechanics  those 
who  will  work  in  factories  with  machinery  and  many 
other  workmen,  and  second,  trade  schools  for  those  who 
will  own  their  own  tools  and  work  essentially  for  them- 
selves." l  The  salient  features  of  this  plan  have  since 
been  incorporated  into  the  New  York  system. 

Superintendent  Frank  T.  Bunker,  of  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia, in  recommending  a  plan  of  reorganization  before 
the  Board  of  Education,  said:  "The  plan  which  I  rec- 
ommend involves*  reorganization  and  regrouping  of  the 
several  grades  of  our  school.  Stated  briefly,  it  is  this:  To 
have  three  groups  of  schools,  one  group  (the  high  school 

1  United  States  Commissioner's  report  for  1910,  pp.  101,  102. 


104  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

proper)  comprising  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  years 
only;  the  second  group,  which  may  be  called  the  intro- 
ductory high  school  group,  comprising  the  seventh,  eighth, 
and  ninth  grades  only,  and  a  third  group  of  schools  (the 
elementary  schools  proper),  comprising  all  children  of  the 
first  six  years. 

"An  examination  of  this  plan  will  convince  one,  I 
think,  that  the  division  of  the  grades  into  three  groups  is 
a  much  more  natural  one  than  the  arrangement  under 
which  we  are  now  working.  .  .  .  Statistics  show  that  the 
masses  are  held  in  school  no  longer  than  through  the 
fifth  grade,  and  that  at  the  close  of  the  fifth  grade  they 
drop  out  in  very  large  numbers,  which  means,  educa- 
tionally, that  whatever  is  to  be  taught  to  the  masses  must 
be  given  in  the  first  five  or  six  years.  ...  In  the  schools 
comprising  this  group  I  would  have  the  course  of  study 
uniform  for  all  children  and  somewhat  narrow  in  its 
scope.  ...  In  the  Introductory  high  school  .  .  .  chil- 
dren would  enter  at  the  period  of  adolescence  when  by 
nature  they  naturally  crave  an  opportunity  to  dip  into  a 
wide  range  of  subjects  and  activities.  ...  I  would  have 
certain  prescribed  subjects  for  this  group,  but  in  addition 
thereto  would  permit  as  many  elections  as  possible.  .  .  . 
I  should  wish  to  see  the  work  of  this  group  made  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  content  and  variety,  and  particularly  in  hu- 
man interests.  I  should  hope  to  see  the  work  of  this 
group  relate  very  closely  to  life  and  be  as  far  away  as  pos- 
sible from  that  which  is  purely  academic  in  education. 
I  should  wish  much  emphasis  placed  on  learning  how  to 
study,  how  to  use  the  library,  how  to  get  material  from 
the  same  with  expedition  and  judgment.  If  a  child  fore- 
sees that  he  wants  to  take  German  or  Latin  in  the  high 
school  proper,  I  would  wish  him  to  begin  these  Ian- 


REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION      105 

guages  when  he  enters  this  group  and  thus  have  six  years 
of  work  in  the  same  before  he  enters  college.  ...  I 
should  wish  to  see  the  work  of  this  group  shaped  up  to 
make  a  more  easy  transition  from  the  work  of  the  element- 
ary grades  to  the  departmental  work  of  the  high  school. 
In  line  with  this,  I  should  wish  teachers  assigned  to  work 
in  these  grades  who  have  a  broad  culture  and  a  wide  ex- 
perience in  the  grades.  ...  If  this  work  which  I  have 
outlined  be  carefully  and  efficiently  done  .  .  .  the  incom- 
ing student  [to  the  high  school  proper]  will  have  de- 
veloped a  much  more  serious  attitude  toward  his  work 
than  obtains  at  the  present  time;  will  have  oriented  him- 
self better,  so  far  as  his  subjects  are  concerned;  and  the 
break  will  not  be  so  great  or  so  discouraging  as  with  the 
plan  under  which  we  are  now  working.  Moreover,  the 
students  entering  the  high  school  proper  will  have  de- 
veloped a  greater  cohesion  than  now  obtains.  With  our 
present  plan  students  dribble  into  the  high  school  in  small 
numbers  and  from  many  schools.  They  are  wholly  lack- 
ing anything  approaching  a  community  of  feeling  or  a 
feeling  of  group  responsibility.  They  have  had  no  ex- 
perience in  organized  action  and  are  not  conscious  of 
their  individual  responsibility  in  contributing  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  student  body  sentiment  which  shall  be 
high  and  lofty  in  purposes  and  in  its  influence.  .  .  .  With 
three  years  of  community  life  at  the  centres  wherein  the 
administrative  methods  are  shaped  to  develop  this  respon- 
sibility, it  would  seem  that  the  student  would  enter  the 
high  school  proper  at  a  much  higher  level  with  respect  to 
student  body  morale  than  at  present."  * 

This  plan  is  to-day  in  complete  operation  in  Berkeley. 

1  Pamphlet  No.  2,  pp.  2-10. 


CHAPTER  V 

INSTRUCTION:  ITS  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL 

EDWARD  C.  ELLIOTT,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION,    UNIVERSITY   OF   WISCONSIN 

The  Meaning  and  Nature  of  Control. — The  progress  of 
human  society  has,  at  every  stage,  witnessed  an  increase 
in  the  number  and  complexity  of  the  relationships  main- 
tained by  individuals,  acting  singly  and  through  organi- 
zation. These  relationships  have  developed  from  the  fun- 
damental needs  of  men — protection,  food,  communica- 
tion, possession,  ideals,  etc., — and  in  every  society  have 
produced  for  their  attainment  consciously  organized  and 
directed  efforts  that  are  called  institutions.  The  more 
numerous  and  complex  the  relationships,  the  more  highly 
organized  have  become  the  institutions.  The  more  highly 
organized  the  institutions,  the  more  necessary  have  be- 
come the  means  and  methods  whereby  they  may  properly 
and  economically  perform  their  intended  functions. 

The  institutions  of  our  modern  society  are  exceedingly 
complex,  and  becoming  more  so  as  human  needs  become 
more  numerous  and  human  relationships  more  compli- 
cated. The  foremost  demand  upon  the  civilization  of  the 
present  is  for  an  efficient  control  of  all  institutions  that 
contribute  to  the  social  welfare. 

Education  is  the  process  of  changing  individuals  from 
what  they  are  to  what  they  become.  It  signifies  the  trans- 
formation that  qualifies  human  beings  to  live  in  helpful 
social  contact.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  fundamental 

106 


INSTRUCTION  107 

needs  of  society  and  consequently  of  individuals.  To 
meet  this  need  the  school  has  been  established.  The 
school,  from  this  point  of  view,  may  be  considered  that 
institution,  that  bit  of  machinery,  which  society  utilizes 
to  accomplish  a  specific  work;  that  is,  to  increase  the 
effectiveness  of  the  relationships  which  individuals  and 
groups  of  individuals  bear  to  one  another. 

Considered  as  a  social  institution,  devised  and  oper- 
ated for  specific  purposes,  it  is  obvious  that  the  school 
must  be  controlled  and  directed.  It,  like  all  other  insti- 
tutions, must  be  adapted  to  accomplish  the  results  re- 
quired of  it.  Its  various  parts  must  be  brought  into  effec- 
tive and  economical  relation  to  each  other,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce those  changes  in  individuals  most  beneficial  to  the 
whole  of  society,  to  enable  a  direct  response  to  the  needs 
of  men  and  to  develop  a  clear  understanding  of  their 
mutual  dependence  upon  each  other.  This,  in  brief,  is 
the  function  or  work  of  school  control. 

The  Forms  of  External  Control. — It  is  evident  that  a 
large  number  of  matters  are  involved  in  the  work  of  organ- 
izing and  directing  the  work  of  a  school.  Ideals  must  be 
conceived,  general  policies  of  action  formulated,  resources 
supplied,  accommodations  and  equipment  provided,  and 
standards  for  teachers  and  instruction  determined.  If 
we  analyze  carefully  the  chief  controlling  forces  of  the 
school,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  four  distinct  elements. 
These  are:  (a)  the  legislative,  (6)  the  administrative,  (c) 
the  supervisory,  and  (d)  the  inspectorial.  For  reasons 
which  will  presently  become  apparent,  it  is  essential  to 
recognize  these  separate  elements.1  Each  performs,  as 

1  It  may  be  insisted  upon  that  the  distinctions  here  pointed  out  repre- 
sent more  than  formal,  verbal  differences.  In  fact,  the  confusion  of 
these  terms  has  hindered  the  development  of  effective  school  control, 


108  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

it  were,  a  different  task  and  each  involves  activities  re- 
sulting in  special  influences. 

(a)  Legislative  control  is  that  form  of  regulation  ex- 
erted by  the  authority  possessing  final  governmental  juris- 
diction.    In  the  case  of  schools  belonging  to  a  public 
educational  system,  this  control  is  usually  centred  in  the 
legislature,  by  the  sanction  of  which  all  public  schools 
owe  their  existence,  derive  their  support,  and  carry  on 
their  work.     The  only  restrictions  to  legislative  action 
are  those  defined  by  the  fundamental  law,  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  State.    Theoretically,  the  power  of  the  legis- 
lature extends  to  all  schools  whether  or  not  organized 
and  directed  as  public  schools.     The  schools  maintained 
by  religious  organizations,  as  well  as  those  known  as 
endowed  and  private  schools,  are   permitted   to   exist 
only  through  a  grant  of  power  from  the  State.     This 
grant  may  be  of  a  general  nature,  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
stitutional guarantee  of  the  freedom  of  the  right  'to  teach 
and  conduct  schools,  or  it  may  be  of  a  special  nature  and 
in  the  form  of  a  charter  or  legal  incorporation.     From  a 
practical  view-point  the  legislative  control  of  non-public 
schools  is  exercised  by  the  body  possessing  the  immediate 
governmental  power,  as,  for  instance,  the  presbytery,  gen- 
eral council,  etc.,  of  church  organizations. 

(b)  Administrative  control  is  that  vested  in  the  agents 
created  by  legislative  action,  or  recognized  as  such  by  an 
implied  legal  sanction.     Boards  of  education,  boards  of 
trustees,  superintendents,  inspectors,  etc.,  are  common 
types  of  such  agents.     Administrative  activities  have, 

particularly  of  public  schools.  There  is  yet  another  type  of  control  that 
may  be  designated  as  the  managerial.  In  this  classification  managerial 
control  is  regarded  as  operating  internally,  and  is  considered  as  being 
made  up  of  the  activities  within  the  direction  of  the  class  teacher . 


INSTRUCTION  109 

however,  certain  special  characteristics  which  distinguish 
them  from  those  which  are  legislative,  supervisory,  or  in- 
spectorial. They  are,  first  of  all,  general  in  their  nature, 
in  that  they  do  not  depend  upon  technical  or  expert 
knowledge  for  their  successful  performance.  Further- 
more, the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  administrators 
are  usually  imposed  and  denned  directly  by  law,  or  pre- 
scribed by  an  authority  established  in  law  for  this  purpose. 
This  is  the  variety  of  control  exercised  by  boards  of  edu- 
cation and  other  legally  authorized  bodies  and  persons 
in  establishing  and  supporting  schools,  in  providing  ade- 
quate accommodations  and  equipment,  in  securing  prop- 
erly qualified  teachers,  and,  in  general,  observing  the  re- 
strictions and  requirements  of  the  higher  legislative  au- 
thority. 

(c)  Supervisory  control  depends  for  its  effectiveness 
upon  agents  possessing  technical  and  expert  knowledge 
of  educational  processes,  and  capable  of  employing  that 
knowledge  for  the  development  and  advancement  of  the 
institutions  coming  under  their  control.  Its  mode  of  op- 
eration is,  or  should  be,  determined,  not  by  the  general 
or  limited  prescriptions  of  legislative  enactment,  but  by 
the  universal  standards  of  scientific  procedure.  This  is 
the  variety  of  control  that  should  be  exercised  by  agents 
selected  for  this  immediate  purpose,  directors,  superin- 
tendents, supervisors,  head-masters,  and  principals.  Such 
control  cannot  become  effective  if  exercised  by  laymen  or 
those  whose  real  duties  are  administrative.  Whereas, 
administrative  control  is  general  in  character  and  oper- 
ates impersonally,  supervisory  control  is  special  in  char- 
acter and  properly  operates  with  reference  to  individ- 
uals. A  personal  contact  between  the  one  supervising 
and  the  one  supervised  is  a  necessary  condition.  Above 


110  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

all,  skilled  supervisors  must  directly  produce  constructive 
results. 

(d)  Closely  related  to  supervisory  control,  yet  to  be 
distinguished  from  it,  is  the  inspectorial  control.  This  is 
also  special  in  character  and  is  based  upon  expert  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  and  technique  of  successful  and 
efficient  instruction.  It  differs  from  the  supervisory  ac- 
tivity in  that  its  special  purpose  is  not  personal,  construc- 
tive service.  Its  aim  is  toward  an  impersonal,  objective 
measurement  of  the  results  arid  worth  of  the  school. 
Thus,  narrowly  interpreted,  an  inspector's  special  func- 
tion is  to  pass  upon  worth  and  efficiency.  A  supervisor 
must  do  this  and  more;  he  must  raise  the  worth  and  in- 
crease the  efficiency. 

Strictly  speaking,  each  one  of  the  several  matters  enter- 
ing into  the  make-up  of  the  school  is  subject  in  some  de- 
gree to  each  one  of  the  different  forms  of  control  indicated. 
There  is  legislative  control  of  ideals,  finance,  buildings, 
teachers,  instruction,  discipline,  and,  in  fact,  all  of  the 
different  features  of  organized  education.  There  is  like- 
wise an  administration,  a  supervision,  and  an  inspection 
of  each.  Inasmuch  as  the  immediate  and  limited  pur- 
pose of  this  chapter  is  the  discussion  of  the  more  impor- 
tant aspects  of  the  control  of  instruction  in  secondary 
schools,  an  attempt  to  indicate  fundamental  distinctions 
between  the  several  forms  or  varieties  of  control  as  applied 
to  the  instructional  activities  of  these  schools  will  now  be 
undertaken. 

Three  Aims  of  Subject-Matter. — The  subject-matter  of 
instruction  in  any  school,  or  scheme  of  education,  may  be 
said  to  represent  three  separate  aims  which,  while  closely 
related  to  one  another,  require  independent  considera- 
tion from  the  point  of  view  of  control. 


INSTRUCTION  111 

The  programme  of  studies1  reflects  the  broad  social  pur- 
pose for  which  the  school  stands.  It  is  a  concentrated 
product  of  the  experience  of  society,  and  its  precise  char- 
acter at  any  time  and  place  is  determined  by  the  larger 
fundamental  needs  of  the  society  to  which  the  school  is 
responsible.2  Its  motive  is  derived,  not  from  the  special 
educational  requirements  of  any  particular  individual,  nor 
from  the  necessities  of  any  single  group  of  individuals, 
but  is  dependent  upon  the  sum  total  of  individual  and 
group  needs.8  The  curriculum,  on  the  other  hand,  sig- 
nifies an  effort  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  differing  indi- 
viduals and  differing  classes.  Here  is  to  be  found  special- 
ization of  instruction  for  the  benefit  of  the  one  or  the  few. 
The  organization  of  such  curricula  is  to  be  observed  in  the 
formulation  of  the  so-called  special  courses — English,  col- 
lege preparatory,  scientific,  commercial,  technical — in 
the  modern  cosmopolitan  high  school.  The  course  of 
study,  that  is,  the  quantity,  quality,  and  method  of  work, 

1  In  the  absence  of  a  generally  recognized  and  clearly  denned  termi- 
nology, it  seems  appropriate  to  recognize  some  distinction  between  the 
several  terms  applying  to  the  organization  of  instruction.  Those  sug- 
gested by  the  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  (Report, 
p.  42),  in  spite  of  certain  limitations,  will  serve  the  present  purpose.  The 
programme  of  studies  properly  includes  all  the  subjects  offered  in  a  given 
school.  The  curriculum  refers  to  a  group  of  subjects  systematically 
arranged  for  any  pupil  or  set  of  pupils.  The  course  of  study  means  the 
quantity,  quality,  and  method  of  work  in  any  given  subject  of  instruc- 
tion. 

*  This  is  only  partly  true.  The  school  and  all  education  are  too  much 
subject  to  tradition  to  be,  at  any  particular  time,  immediately  and  di- 
rectly responsible  to  the  prevailing  demands.  Consequently,  the  content 
and  processes  of  instruction  always  lag  behind  the  social  need  and  the 
individual  requirement. 

a"In  other  words,  in  the  determination  of  the  course  of  study  [i.  e., 
programme  of  studies],  not  the  interests  and  activities  of  the  individual, 
but  the  ideals,  the  requirements,  the  activities  of  society  constitute  the 
final  standard."  (MacVannel,  School  Review,  vol.  14,  103.) 


112  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  any  given  subject  of  instruction,  is  the  result  of  the  expe- 
rience of  the  school  and  of  the  teacher.  Broadly  speak- 
ing, the  programme  of  studies  is  the  means  for  realizing 
the  wide  social  ideal;  the  curriculum,  the  means  for  arriv- 
ing at  class  or  individual  ends;  and  the  course  of  study, 
the  means  for  attaining  an  immediate  pedagogical  object. 
Society  as  a  whole  determines  the  first;  special  groups, 
the  second;  and  the  school,  the  third. 

The  programme  of  studies,  the  curriculum,  and  the 
course  of  study  represent  the  foundation  material  of  the 
instructional  work  of  the  school.  Each  is,  in  varying 
amounts,  subject  to  legislative,  to  administrative,  to  su- 
pervisory, and  to  inspectorial  control.  An  outline  answer 
to  the  question,  who  should  determine  the  content,  the 
operation,  and  the  standards  of  worth  of  instruction  will, 
it  is  believed,  serve  to  delimit  the  field  of  action  of  each 
type  of  control. 

The  Making  of  Plans  and  Specifications  of  Instruction. 
— The  past  has  always  laid  a  heavy  hand  on  social  insti- 
tutions, especially  the  school,  and  more  especially  what 
the  school  has  taught.  This  has  been  both  good  and 
bad  for  formal  education;  good  in  that  experience  has 
been  a  guide  to  trodden  paths;  bad,  in  that  the  experience 
of  the  past  too  frequently  has  not  been  able  to  see 
around  the  corner  of  the  present.  Albeit,  modern  school 
control  must  be  conscious  of  the  indisputable  fact  that 
the  ideals  and  acquirements  of  preceding  generations  of 
school  practice  cannot  be  disregarded.  The  school  fol- 
lows the  universal  law  of  evolutionary  development. 
Therefore,  when  one  speaks  of  planning  programmes  of 
studies,  the  organization  of  curricula,  or  the  making  of 
courses  of  study,  what  one  really  means  is  that  a  con- 
scious endeavor  is  being  made  to  adapt  the  established 


INSTRUCTION  113 

content,  arrangement,  and  method  of  instruction  to  the 
new  and  changed  conditions  of  the  present.  Effective  con- 
trol of  school  instruction  must  be  Argus-eyed,  and  while 
it  attends  chiefly  to  the  educational  needs  of  the  society  of 
to-day  and  to-morrow,  it  may  not  neglect  to  hold  in  view 
the  accomplishments  of  the  society  of  yesterday. 

If  it  has  been  impossible  for  the  school  to  evade  the 
power  of  the  past,  it  has  been  difficult  in  the  extreme  to 
avoid  an  autocracy  of  the  present.  The  whims,  biases, 
and  transitory  enthusiasms  of  influential  individuals,  as 
well  as  the  established  interests  of  special  social  groups,1 
seek  to  impress  themselves  upon  what  and  how  the  school 
teaches.  The  real  wisdom  of  school  control  consists  in 
an  ability  to  detect  and  absorb  the  elements  of  real  prog- 
ress and  to  disregard  the  counterfeit  and  the  make-believe. 

It  may  appropriately  be  asked  at  this  point,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  great  practical  importance,  what  special  responsi- 
bility does  each  one  of  the  described  forms  of  school  con- 
trol have  with  regard  to  the  general  plans  and  schemes  of 
instruction  to  be  followed  in  a  school  or  class  of  schools  ? 
The  circumstances  of  presentation  compel  brevity  of  re- 
ply. Beyond  question,  the  proper  fixing  of  the  kind, 
amount,  and  order  of  arrangement  of  the  instruction  are 
matters  requiring  expert  knowledge.  They  are  matters 
that  should  be  determined  in  accordance  with  defined 
social  and  scientific  principles,  the  meaning  and  opera- 
tion of  which  can  be  comprehended  only  after  that  period 
of  special  study,  training,  and  experience,  through  which 
only  scientific  specialists  and  technicists  pass.  Conse- 
quently, they  should  not  be  subject  to  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  either  legislative  or  administrative  control.  They 

1  The  recognized  power  of  the  commercial  classes  over  modem  schools 
of  all  grades  aptly  illustrates  this  portion  of  the  argument 


114  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

belong  strictly  to  the  province  of  the  supervisor  and  the 
inspector. 

To  specify  more  in  detail :  Only  in  so  far  as  a  general 
social  policy  is  concerned  may  the  legislative  authority 
be  exercised  within  the  field  of  secondary  or  higher  in- 
struction.1 It  may  describe  the  ideal  and  ends  to  be 
attained;  it  may  frame  the  general  policy  of  operation; 
it  may  prescribe  the  functions  of  specific  institutions;  it 
may  grant  to  administrative  and  supervisory  agents  per- 
missive authorization  to  require  the  teaching  of  certain 
subjects.  To  go  beyond  these  limits  means  encroach- 
ment and  interference  with  the  legitimate  scientific  direc- 
tion of  instruction,  which,  it  may  again  be  emphasized, 
depends  upon  the  free  exercise  of  the  skill  and  insight  of 
the  expert. 

A  problem  far  more  difficult  of  practical  solution  is 
presented  by  the  relation  of  administrative  boards  and 
agents  to  the  organization  and  control  of  instruction. 
This  problem  is  a  conspicuous  one  with  the  public  high 
schools.  Any  satisfactory  or  complete  discussion  of  the 
proper  functions  of  boards  of  education  (and  all  boards 
and  general  administrative  officers  controlling  fiduciary 
and  other  non-public  institutions)  is  entirely  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  brief  discussion.  It  seems  essential,  how- 
ever, to  express  the  general  conclusion  that,  in  respect  to 
instruction,  such  boards  should  confine  themselves  to  pro- 
viding support  and  material  means  and,  above  all,  com- 

1  Paradoxical  though  it  may  seem,  the  prescription  of  instruction  in 
public  elementary  schools  by  legislatures  may  be  defended  on  the  ground 
of  the  social  issues  involved.  While  in  the  United  States  it  had  been 
customary  to  define  by  law  the  subjects  of  instruction  for  public  elemen- 
tary schools,  the  causes  and  reasons  for  such  legislative  control  do  not 
hold  in  the  more  complicated  and  differentiated  fields  of  public  secondary 
and  higher  education. 


INSTRUCTION  115 

patent  supervisory  and  instructional  experts.  They  may, 
and  perhaps  should,  as  a  matter  of  social  policy,  approve 
recommended  programmes  of  study.  The  details  of  these 
programmes,  the  organization  of  curricula,  and  the  fix- 
ing of  the  content  of  courses  of  study  belong  elsewhere. 
Ideally,  the  ultimate  control  of  the  general  plan  and 
working  details  of  instruction  should  rest  primarily  with 
the  supervisory  authorities:  guided  by  the  general  social 
policy  formulated  by  the  legislative  and  administrative 
authorities,  with  due  regard  to  the  capacity  of  these  au- 
thorities to  provide  ways  and  means,  and  acting  in  co- 
operation with  the  principal  agents  of  instruction,  the 
teachers.1 

Inspectorial  Control  of  Instruction. — It  is  pertinent  to 
include  at  this  time  some  consideration  of  the  inspec- 
torial control  of  instruction,  which  has  developed  from 
two  principal  sources — the  organized  State  school  systems, 
and  the  higher  educational  institutions,  college  and  uni- 
versity. Each  serves  to  standardize  the  intellectual  or- 
ganization of  secondary  schools  and  thus  to  influence  in  a 
marked  manner  the  purpose  and  content  of  programmes, 
curricula,  and  courses  of  study. 

During  the  past  two  decades  the  public  high  school 

1  "As  long  as  the  teacher,  who  is,  after  all,  the  only  real  educator  in 
the  school  system,  has  no  definite  and  authoritative  position  in  shaping 
the  course  of  study,  it  is  likely  to  remain  an  external  thing  to  be  externally 
applied  to  the  child."  (Dewey,  "The  Educational  Situation,"  p.  30.) 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  desirable  relation  of  the  teacher  to  instructional 
plans  so  effectively  set  forth  by  Professor  Dewey  is,  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  most  difficult  of  attainment.  So  long  as  secondary  school- 
teachers, as  a  class,  live  such  a  short  life  of  professional  activity,  and 
are  trained  only  to  the  point  of  being  able  to  reach  a  scanty  minimum 
of  instructional  or  educational  efficiency,  the  chief  dependence  for  the 
efficient  direction  of  teaching  must  be  upon  the  supervisory  and  in- 
spectorial authorities. 


116  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

has  undergone  a  rapid  expansion  and  development. 
More  and  more  it  has  tended  to  become  the  most  impor- 
tant institution  of  popular  education.  This  situation  has 
caused  the  State  to  employ  various  means  for  raising  the 
efficiency  of  the  high  school,  chiefly  by  the  provision  of 
special  financial  aids  and  the  establishment  of  certain 
more  or  less  uniform  standards  of  instruction  to  be  met 
as  a  condition  for  the  award  of  the  State  support.  Sys- 
tematic State  inspection  of  public  high  schools  by  agents 
of  the  State  has  been  a  natural  outcome,  and  contem- 
porary events  would  seem  to  indicate  a  yet  more  extended 
oversight  of  public  high  school  instruction  by  the  State. 
That  this  will  be  justified,  there  can  be  no  debate;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  this  oversight  is  exercised  through 
skilled  agents,  competent  to  evaluate  the  meaning  and 
results  of  instruction,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
to  the  supervisory  authority  of  each  school  its  freedom  of 
action  and  rightful  responsibilities.  Effective,  construc- 
tive supervision,  it  may  be  repeated,  results  from  personal 
contact  of  the  supervisor  and  supervised.  The  State 
should  inspect,  but  not  supervise  instruction.  And  this 
responsibility  of  inspection  should  extend  to  all  schools, 
public,  private,  and  otherwise. 

In  theory,  the  State  is  seeking  more  effectively  to  realize 
the  public  purpose  of  secondary  education  by  setting  up 
standards  of  value.  The  college  and  the  university  have, 
at  the  same  time,  striven  to  secure  from  the  secondary 
school  that  quality  and  quantity  of  instruction  which 
might  serve  as  a  foundation  for  their  own  work.  Origi- 
nally the  higher  educational  institutions  did  not  much 
concern  themselves  with  the  instruction  given  in  the  high 
and  other  preparatory  schools.  Students  applying  for 
admission  were  tested  by  formal,  written  examinations. 


INSTRUCTION  117 

With  the  establishment  and  development  of  the  State 
colleges  and  universities  this  method  was  gradually  re- 
placed by  that  of  admitting  upon  the  certificate  from  the 
secondary  school.  Such  a  plan  presumes  that  certain  pre- 
scribed entrance  requirements  have  been  fulfilled,  and  in 
consequence  the  college  and  university  have  begun  to 
exert  a  large  and,  in  many  respects,  an  ill-proportioned  in- 
fluence upon  the  kind  and  amount  of  instruction  in  the 
high  school.  From  the  inspectorial  relationship  which  the 
higher  institution  assumed  toward  the  lower  has  developed 
one  of  the  most  complex  issues  in  modern  education.  It  is 
not  intended  to  present  in  any  detailed  way  the  problems 
that  have  arisen.  We  may  not  dismiss  the  subject  with- 
out expressing  the  judgment,  which  might  be  supported 
by  ample  evidence,  that  this  inspectorial  relationship 
should  not  carry  with  it  the  power  and  authority  to  inter- 
fere with  the  legitimate  activities  of  the  supervisory 
authority  of  any  school.  The  State  and  higher  educa- 
tion are  primarily  interested  in  the  product  of  instruction. 
The  means  and  processes  for  producing  this  product  are 
matters  that  should  be  within  the  determination  of  those 
in  immediate  supervisory  charge  of  instruction. 

Internal  Control. — Up  to  this  point  the  presentation 
has  been  confined  to  those  factors  of  influence  that  oper- 
ate externally;  that  is,  they  impress  themselves  on  the 
school  from  the  outside.  It  is  now  desirable  to  consider 
the  principal  internal  forces  that  make  for  the  efficient 
organization  and  control  of  instruction. 

Principals  and  Superintendents. — As  a  consistent  con- 
clusion to  the  argument  already  set  forth,  the  first  and 
foremost  requirement  for  the  realization  of  the  aim  of 
any  school  is  that  it  be  under  skilful  direction  and  con- 
trol. This  is  to  say,  that  the  individuals  filling  the  office 


118  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

of  principal,  head-master,  superintendent,  or  by  whatever 
name  the  super visorship  is  known,  are  to  be  personally, 
professionally,  and  in  every  other  way  fitted  to  act  as 
directors  of  a  real  educational  process.  It  is  far  from 
sufficient  that  they  be  administrators  and  executives  or 
inspectors  of  high  grade,  however  necessary  and  valuable 
the  proper  performance  of  the  activities  implied  by  those 
words  may  be.  As  a  rule,  American  schools  are  well 
provided  in  these  directions.  The  capacity  to  lead  without 
compelling,  to  inspire  without  futile  resort  to  wordy  sen- 
timent, to  produce  a  unity  of  aim  from  diversity  of  effort, 
to  measure  results  scientifically  and  humanely,  and  to 
spell  the  responsibility  of  self  and  co-workers  to  pupils 
with  a  capital  R — these  are  the  demands  of  the  super- 
visor, especially  of  secondary  instruction.  Minus  these, 
the  machinery  of  organization  moves  without  progress, 
and  programmes,  curricula,  and  courses  have  a  depre- 
ciated value.  The  competent  supervisor  then  represents 
the  first  condition  for  the  vitality  and  worth  of  instruction. 
Legislator  and  administrator  perform  their  chief  direct 
duties  toward  instruction  by  providing  for  the  supervisor. 
Teachers. — But  leadership  must  needs  have  followers, 
and  control  must  issue  from  intelligent  co-operation. 
The  lever  of  instruction  rests  upon  the  qualified  class 
teachers  who  constitute  the  fulcrum  of  educational  effi- 
ciency. And  by  qualified  is  meant  individuals  who  have 
been  selected,  educated,  and  trained  for  specific  instruc- 
tional duties.  A  frank,  unbiased  view  of  the  existing  situ- 
ation must  be  convincing  that,  speaking  by  and  large,  the 
secondary  schools  of  America,  non-public  as  well  as 
public,  are  not  accomplishing  their  tasks,  chiefly  because 
of  the  lack  of  educated  and  trained  teachers.  It  has 
taken  several  decades  to  establish  the  general  standard 


INSTRUCTION  119 

that  an  education  equal  in  quantity  to  four  years  be- 
yond the  high  school  is  a  not  unreasonable  one  for  high 
and  other  secondary  school-teachers.  It  will  probably 
take  another  decade  or  more  to  produce  a  wide  realiza- 
tion that  the  college  graduate  is,  ipso  facto,  not  qualified 
to  teach  any  subject  in  the  expanded  programme  of 
studies,  even  though  he  is  permitted,  ipso  jure,  to  attempt 
to  do  so.  Whatever  be  the  necessary  personal  attributes 
and  the  broad  cultural  foundations  for  successful  and 
efficient  teaching — and  these  qualities  do  not  stand  in 
need  of  emphasis — the  class  teacher,  upon  whom  result- 
ful  instruction  depends,  must  be  a  master  of  one  or, 
better,  two  subjects  of  instruction;  a  master  of  those 
subjects,  not  according  to  the  traditional  standards  of 
academic  scholarship,  but  according  to  the  standards 
erected  for  secondary  education.  These  latter  standards 
necessitate  a  mastery  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  proc- 
esses of  children  as  well  as  the  mastery  of  the  forms  of 
knowledge.  The  central  responsibility  for  this  mastery 
rests  with  the  institutions  charged  with  the  preparation 
of  teachers  for  secondary  schools. 

Selection  of  Teachers. — While  the  preparation  of  a 
sufficient  supply  of  properly  qualified  teachers  is  as  yet 
an  unsolved  problem  with  us  in  America,  there  is  another 
closely  related  one  which  is  of  even  greater  importance 
to  the  school.  Expert  and  competent  supervision,  if  it 
be  worthy  of  its  name,  must  include  the  right  to  select 
the  teachers  who  are  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  instruction. 
Here,  at  least  in  so  far  as  public  schools  are  concerned, 
and  in  particular  the  public  schools  of  small  communities, 
the  practice  of  lay  administrative  boards  in  assuming  to 
select  and  to  determine  the  fitness  of  teachers  constitutes 
an  obstacle  of  no  mean  proportions  to  progressive  stand- 


120  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ards  of  instruction.  The  selection  of  teachers  is  not 
only  one  of  the  rights,  but  also  one  of  the  inherent  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  supervisor.  Without  this  right  and 
this  responsibility  the  holder  of  the  supervisorship  de- 
generates into  the  position  of  performing,  mechanically, 
administrative  duties  connected  with  instruction.  The 
class  teacher  personally  fit,  liberally  educated,  technically 
trained,  professionally  selected  and  retained  according  to 
denned  standards  of  teaching  efficiency  represents  the 
second  condition  whereby  the  plans  of  instruction  take 
on  reality. 

Material  Equipment. — To  adept  supervision  and  pro- 
ficient teaching  must  be  added  as  a  third  condition  the 
provision  of  appropriate  accommodations  and  necessary 
equipment.  The  need  of  buildings,  convenient  and 
adapted  for  their  special  educational  uses,  and  of  books 
and  apparatus,  is  too  evident  to  justify  any  discussion. 
This  need  has  become  greater  with  the  rapid  growth  of 
attendance  upon  the  schools  under  consideration.  Never- 
theless, the  number  of  these  schools  which  are  housed  and 
equipped  in  ways  that  enable  the  most  fruitful  teaching 
is  relatively  small;  regretfully  small,  when  the  gross  ex- 
penditures for  these  items  are  recalled.  Calculation  of 
the  realizable  worth  of  any  course  of  study  must  take  into 
account  the  objective  facilities  at  hand  in  the  form  of 
libraries,  laboratories,  and  illustrative  material  of  every 
sort.  Efficient  administration  will  furnish  these  aids  to 
teaching;  efficient  supervision  and  teaching  will  convince 
those  responsible  for  the  material  welfare  of  the  school 
that  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between  these  means 
and  the  desired  ends  of  instruction. 

Text-Books. — The  text-book  maintains  a  place  of  first 
importance  among  the  necessary  equipment  for  instruc- 


INSTRUCTION  121 

tion.  Even  with  its  limitations  as  an  instrument  for 
teaching,  and  admitting  the  altogether  too  prevalent 
tendency  of  both  teachers  and  learners  to  magnify 
its  value,  the  agencies  for  the  supervision  and  direction 
of  the  instructional  work  of  the  school  must  reckon  with 
it.  Here  again  the  expert  control  of  the  school  finds  itself 
restricted  and  handicapped  by  other  predominating  forces. 
The  selection  of  text-books,  next  to  the  selection  of  teach- 
ers, is  a  responsibility  that  belongs  within,  and  not  with- 
out, the  school.  Under  existing  conditions  officers  of 
administration  and  representatives  of  commercial  inter- 
ests exercise  too  potent  an  influence,  an  influence  which 
is  not  always  regardful  of  the  requirements  of  instruction 
and  education.  Under  a  proper  plan  of  organization, 
the  supervisory  authority,  acting  in  close  co-operation 
with  the  teacher,  should  determine  finally  the  question  of 
text-books.  Violation  of  this  essential  working  principle 
is  a  needless  interference  with  the  legitimate  functions  of 
those  from  whom  society  expects  a  service  founded  on 
skill  and  technical  knowledge  of  the  educational  processes. 

In  all  probability  the  school  will  best  succeed  in  attain- 
ing its  instructional  ends  by  providing  for  its  pupils  the 
needful  text-books.  The  free  text-book  for  public  ele- 
mentary schools  has  proved  its  advantages.  The  argu- 
ments that  hold  with  this  class  of  schools  are  equally,  and 
perhaps  even  more,  valid  in  the  case  of  secondary  schools. 

Instruction  in  Operation. — From  now  on  the  questions 
before  us  involve  the  triangular  relations  of  supervisor, 
teacher,  and  pupil.  The  more  important  of  these  may  be 
dwelt  upon  only  briefly. 

Supervisory  Control. — The  activities  of  control  that  are 
rightfully  supervisory  in  character  have  been  already 
described  as  involving  expert  skill  in  applying  technical 


122  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

knowledge  of  the  means  and  methods  of  education;  as 
involving  a  personal,  co-operative  contact  between  the 
supervisor  and  the  teacher;  as  resulting  in  construc- 
tive progress.  While  effective  supervision  comprehends 
these  aims  and  results,  in  actual  practice  it  includes  also 
the  measuring  function  of  the  inspector.  Stating  the 
matter  in  another  way,  purposeful  supervisory  control 
necessitates  clear-cut  standards  for  determining  the  rela- 
tive worth  of  the  various  means  and  methods  which  the 
school  employs  to  produce  its  products;  and  also  the 
relative  worth  of  the  products. 

The  first  test  of  direct  supervisory  power  comes  with 
the  assignment  of  the  teacher's  instructional  work.  Given 
teachers  of  the  requisite  special  preparation  and  general 
fitness,  it  is  yet  necessary  to  bring  about  the  adaptations 
to  the  variable  circumstances  under  which  instruction 
within  the  school  must  be  conducted.  As  a  general  prac- 
tice the  secondary  school  requires  of  each  individual 
teacher  too  great  an  amount  of  teaching.  Five  periods 
of  fifty  minutes  each  per  day — which  means  twenty-five 
periods  of  instruction  for  the  week — may  be  regarded  as 
a  maximum  assignment.  In  certain  subjects,  as,  for  in- 
stance, those  in  science,  requiring  for  their  proper  treat- 
ment much  preliminary  detail;  or  English,  demanding  a 
rigorous  scrutiny  of  written  work,  a  limit  of  four  daily 
periods  of  teaching  should  be  established  in  the  interest 
of  the  best  results.  At  any  rate,  every  assignment  will 
consider  all  of  the  factors  that  exert  a  positive  or  negative 
influence  upon  the  working  capacity  of  teacher  and  pupils. 
The  widely  prevailing  practice  of  considering  a  class  as 
a  standard,  uniform  thing  in  assigning  work  to  teachers 
is  not  wholly  consistent  with  wisely  directed  control. 
Differences  in  quality  of  courses  of  study,  the  size  and 


INSTRUCTION  123 

possible  rate  of  progress  of  classes  must  be  constantly 
held  in  mind. 

A  second  test  of  the  worth  of  the  supervisory  control  is 
to  be  found  in  the  ability  of  the  supervisor  to  serve  as 
an  inspector  and  to  distinguish  teaching  that  is  prolific 
in  results  from  that  which  is  barren;  theoretically,  a  sim- 
ple thing;  in  reality,  a  most  complicated  and  difficult 
accomplishment.  The  more  common  types  of  profitless 
instruction  are  generally  known,  as  well  as  those  having 
real  worth.  These  types  do  not  ordinarily  present  grave 
problems.  The  real  problems  are  to  be  found  in  the  great 
amount  of  teaching  that  is  neither  good  nor  bad.  To  de- 
tect without  delay  teaching  of  this  sort  and  to  analyze  it 
into  its  constituent  elements  characterize  the  trained  in- 
spector; to  be  able  to  eliminate  from  these  elements  those 
that  are  useless  or  harmless  and  to  cultivate  and  develop 
those  that  are  really  serviceable  distinguishes  the  construc- 
tive supervisor.  The  latter  tasks  are  the  more  needful 
for  the  efficiency  of  instruction  and  consequently  the  least 
frequently  attended  to.  In  the  stage  of  development  in 
which  modern  organized  education  of  every  grade  finds 
itself,  the  supreme  business  of  the  supervisor  is  to  trans- 
form average,  or  less  than  average,  teaching  performance 
into  something  that  has  a  much  larger  positive  worth. 
To  accomplish  this  great  end  the  instruction  of  each  class 
and  of  each  course  of  study  will  be  constantly  guided  in 
its  conduct;  guided  but  not  blindly  restrained.1  Further- 
more, justice  requires  the  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
work  of  each  teacher  that  comes  from  regular,  systematic 

1  The  preparation  of  weekly  outlines  and  plans  of  work,  and  the 
periodic  submission  of  reports  of  progress  of  classes  by  teachers,  are 
regulative  devices  of  worth  when  properly  handled.  There  is  always 
the  danger,  however,  that  they  will  come  to  be  regarded  as  ends  in  them- 
selves. 


124  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  intensive  visitation  by  the  supervisor.  Constructive 
criticism  is  individual.  It  cannot  be  generalized  and 
effectively  applied  by  treating  the  teachers  of  a  school 
en  masse.  Teachers'  meetings,  save  for  the  discussion 
and  formulation  of  general  policies,  are  neither  economic 
nor  effective  means  for  increasing  individual  teaching 
power. 

The  organization  and  operation  of  instruction  through 
programmes,  curricula,  and  courses  of  study  has  as  a  fun- 
damental and,  indeed,  an  only  purpose  the  creation  of 
influences  that  will  result  in  those  changes  in  the  capacity 
and  conduct  of  individuals  which  we  call  education. 
The  immediate  subject  of  attention  of  the  supervisor  is  the 
teacher,  for  directly  through  the  teacher  these  changes 
are  produced.  The  ultimate  purpose  of  all  school  con- 
trol is,  however,  to  secure  to  the  pupil  those  conditions  most 
favorable  to  the  production  of  those  changes  desirable  to 
him  as  an  individual  and  needful  for  the  welfare  of  so- 
ciety. The  pupil  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  educa- 
tional system,  and  all  the  forces  of  instruction  should  be 
aligned  to  this  centre. 

The  relationship  of  the  supervisor  to  the  class  teacher 
has  been  described  as  including  as  essential  elements  the 
selection  of  qualified  teachers,  the  economical  and  effec- 
tive assignment  of  work,  and  the  measurement  of  results. 
The  relation  of  the  supervisor  and  the  class  teacher  to  the 
pupil  is  composed  of  these  same  essential  elements. 

Preparation  of  the  Pupil. — The  timely  and  complete 
fruition  of  instruction  in  the  secondary  school  is  in  the 
largest  measure  dependent  upon  the  capacity  and  ele- 
mentary preparation  of  the  pupils  for  this  instruction. 
Whatever  be  the  cause,  the  absence  of  a  thorough  ele- 
mentary foundation  of  its  entering  pupils  constitutes  a 


INSTRUCTION  125 

very  real  problem  of  the  American  high  school.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  this  school  is  not  an  independent 
educational  organization;  it  is  an  integral  unit  of  a  larger 
whole.  To  the  large  demands  now  placed  upon  it  should 
not  be  added  that  of  supplying  the  elementary  foundation. 
The  desire  for  regular  progress  through  the  elementary 
schools,  amounting  almost  to  a  passion  with  the  public, 
the  teachers,  and  the  pupils1  has,  without  question,  low- 
ered the  standard  of  necessary  qualifications  for  admis- 
sion to  the  secondary  school.  The  noticeable  tendency 
of  the  present  day  to  increase  the  amount  of  elementary 
instruction  in  public  and  non-public  secondary  schools 
is  significant  evidence  upon  this  point. 

To  establish  standards  that  really  measure  the  fitness 
of  pupils  for  the  pursuit  of  secondary  courses  of  study  is 
as  yet  one  of  the  unperformed  tasks  of  modern  school  con- 
trol. Such  standards  should  include  not  only  those  of  an 
intellectual  character,  but  also  those  taking  into  account 
ambitions  and  potential  capacities  of  individuals.  These 
are  social  assets  which  the  schools  dare  not  waste. 

Curricula  and  Courses  of  Study. — The  assignment  of 
work  for  pupils,  either  as  groups  or  as  individuals,  neces- 
sitates the  making  of  curricula  and  courses  of  study.  The 
insight  of  the  supervisor  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher  come 
to  their  consummation  in  the  adaptation  of  the  instruction 
to  the  real  and  vital  needs  of  the  individual.  Details  may 
not  be  elaborated  here,  but  as  a  general  proposition  it 
may  be  said  that  the  justification  of  secondary  education 
as  a  part  of  a  broad  social  policy  will  be  found  in  the 

'"Sometimes  I  wonder  how  many  pupils,  upon  an  honest  grading, 
with  a  course  of  study  intelligently  prepared,  would  actually  reach  the 
grade  next  below  the  high  school,  for  I  know  that  many  are  'pushed  up.'  " 
(Chancellor,  "  Class  Teaching  and  Management,"  p.  208.) 


126  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

degree  to  which  the  instruction  in  secondary  schools 
functions  in  the  conduct  and  lives  of  those  receiving  it. 
The  day  of  merely  formal  intellectual  attainment  is  past, 
at  least  within  the  realm  of  popularly  supported  educa- 
tion. Curricula  and  courses  of  study  find  their  real 
basis  in  the  demands  that  life  makes  upon  individuals.1 
To  analyze  these  demands  and  to  take  stock  of  the  in- 
dividual are  requirements  which  cannot  be  evaded  if  in- 
strtfction  is  what  instruction  claims  to  be. 

One  especially  important  aspect  of  this  problem  will 
need  to  be  considered  by  the  school  control  of  the  im- 
mediate future.  This  is  the  differentiation  of  the  con- 
tent and  method  of  instruction  of  boys  from  those  of 
girls.  The  old  democratic  ideal  of  educational  equality 
that  has  resulted  in  the  practical  identity  of  the  secondary 
instruction  of  boys  and  girls  must  sooner  or  later  give 
way  to  the  new  democratic  ideal  that  distinguishes  identity 
and  equality  of  instruction.  The  proper  winnowing  of  the 
younger  generation  for  life's  serious  purposes  will  be  ac- 
complished only  by  giving  to  boys  instruction  intended 
for  boys,  and  to  girls  instruction  designed  for  girls. 

Tests  of  Attainment. — As  a  final  element  of  the  relation 
of  school  control  and  instruction  to  pupils,  that  of  devis- 

1 "  With  the  rounding  out  of  the  high  school  to  meet  all  the  needs  of  life, 
the  standard  changes.  It  ceases  to  be  these  vague  abstractions.  We 
get,  relatively  speaking,  a  scientific  problem — that  is,  a  problem  with  defi- 
nite data  and  definite  methods  of  attack.  We  are  no  longer  concerned 
with  the  abstract  appraisal  of  studies  by  the  measuring-rod  of  culture  or 
discipline.  Our  problem  is  rather  to  study  the  typical  necessities  of 
social  life  and  the  actual  nature  of  the  individual  in  his  specific  needs 
and  capacities.  Our  task  is,  on  one  hand,  to  select  and  adjust  the  studies 
with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  individual  thus  discovered;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  to  order  and  group  them  so  that  they  shall  most  definitely 
and  systematically  represent  the  chief  lines  of  social  endeavor  and  social 
achievement."  (Dewey,  "The  Educational  Situation  as  Concerns  Second- 
ary Education,"  p.  79.) 


INSTRUCTION  127 

ing  reliable  measures  of  attainment  and  progress  repre- 
sents a  problem  of  prime  importance.  The  common 
measures  of  the  efficiency  of  teachers  are  in  reality  esti- 
mates of  the  worth  of  causes  that  are  presupposed  to  con- 
tribute to  the  product  of  teaching.  Personality,  intel- 
lectual attainment,  moral  vigor  are  illustrations  of  the 
terms  used  when  making  such  estimates.  There  is  need, 
though,  to  find  some  measures  of  the  results  of  teaching. 
Percentages  and  marks  are  rough  attempts  at  this  kind 
of  measurement.  They  are  inadequate  and  unreliable  as 
real  tests  of  the  effectiveness  of  instruction.  The  school 
assumes  through  itself  and  its  instruction  to  develop  so- 
called  "powers."  Some  measure  of  these  powers  is  yet 
to  be  contrived  before  we  shall  know  what  is  the  real 
worth  of  teaching.  The  moral  as  well  as  the  intellectual 
acquirements  of  the  instructional  process  are  tangible 
objects  measurably  worthy  of  the  attention  of  a  scientific 
control  of  instruction;  are  necessary  for  such  control. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MATHEMATICS 

f 

L.  C.  KARPINSKI,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR   OF  MATHEMATICS,    UNIVERSITY   OF  MICHIGAN 

"  No  single  instrument  of  youthful  education  has  such 
mighty  power,  both  as  regards  domestic  economy  and  politics, 
and  in  the  arts,  as  the  study  of  arithmetic.  Above  all,  arith- 
metic stirs  up  him  who  is  by  nature  sleepy  and  dull,  and  makes 
him  quick  to  learn,  retentive,  shrewd."  (Plato,  "  Laws,"  5: 74.) 

Place  of  Mathematics. — Mathematics  has  always  held 
an  honorable  place  in  instruction.  If  other  subjects  are 
to  supersede  it  they  must  first  demonstrate  their  superi- 
ority for  preparing  the  youth  for  the  world's  work.  As 
yet,  indeed,  no  other  well-articulated  branches  of  instruc- 
tion, comparable  to  the  possible  progressive  sequence  in 
mathematics,  can  be  offered  in  the  curriculum,  as  in  no 
other  subject  has  the  work  been  so  well  and  so  completely 
formulated.  In  American  schools  mathematics  holds  the 
commanding  position  of  the  required  subject,  covering  a 
period  of  years  extending  through  the  primary  and  second- 
ary grades,  and  demanding  continued  application  along 
one  line  of  reasoning.  This  is  more  true  of  American  than 
of  European  schools,  as  in  European  school  systems  the 
work  in  Latin  plays  much  the  same  r61e.  The  purpose 
in  this  paper  is  to  show  that  mathematics  still  has  a  valid 
claim  to  the  place  accorded  it  in  education. 

Mathematics  Among  the  Ancients. — The  Greek  recog- 
nition of  mathematics  is  best  attested  by  the  long  line  of 

128 


MATHEMATICS  129 

philosophers  who  were  mathematicians  and  of  mathema- 
ticians who  were  philosophers.  Aside  from  purely  liter- 
ary and  philosophical  works,  our  knowledge  of  ancient 
Greek  thought  is  gained  largely  from  the  record  of  their 
achievements  in  this  field.  To  a  somewhat  less  extent 
this  holds  for  ancient  peoples  with  whose  civilization  we 
are  not  so  well  acquainted.  Hindu  literature  abounds  in 
references  to  mathematical  subjects  and  the  closely  related 
astronomical  ones.  So,  too,  the  wise  men  of  Egypt  and 
Babylon  and  China,  many  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  occupied  themselves  with  this  science.  Coming  down 
through  the  ages  to  the  Mohammedan  period,  we  find 
that  the  Arabs  began  their  intellectual  activity  by  the 
study  of  the  mathematics  of  Greece  and  India.  These 
Arabic  writers  have  powerfully  influenced  our  modern 
courses  in  mathematics.  While  in  elementary  geometry 
the  Greek  influence  is  predominant  (although  the  men- 
suration side  is  probably  as  much  Egyptian  and  Roman 
as  Greek),  the  algebra,  arithmetic,  and  trigonometry  carry 
us  back  to  the  Mohammedans,  and  especially  to  Al- 
Khowarizmi,  whose  name,  in  Latin  transliteration  Al- 
gorismi,  gave  rise  to  the  word  algorism,  long  used  for 
arithmetic. 

Mediaeval  Mathematics. — Al-Khowarizmi  lived  in  Bag- 
dad early  in  the  ninth  century.  His  treatise  on  the 
Hindu  art  of  reckoning  with  the  nine  digits  and  a  zero  to 
give  place  value  was  translated  into  Latin  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  this  was  the  work  which  introduced  into 
Europe  modern  arithmetic  with  the  ten  symbols  of  India. 
An  Englishman,  John  of  Halifax  (Sacrobosco),  becoming 
acquainted  with  this  translation,  wrote  an  Algorismus 
vulgaris  which  was  widely  used  in  university  instruction 
in  arithmetic  from  1250  to  1550.  From  Al-Khowariznv 


130  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

we  have  also  an  algebra,  the  first  well-coordinated  text- 
book on  the  subject  which  has  come  to  us,  although 
Diophantus  (c.  250  A.  D.)  had  covered  much  the  same 
ground.  The  body  of  this  Arabic  algebra  deals  with  the 
solution  of  quadratic  equations  including  geometrical 
explanations  of  the  forms:  ax2+bx=n,  ax2+n=bx,  and 
bx+n=ax2.  The  theory  of  irrationals  is  touched  upon 
slightly,  but  negative  numbers  as  such  do  not  appear, 
which  accounts  for  the  three  types  of  quadratic  equations, 
as  above.  This  algebra  was  translated  in  the  twelfth 
century  both  by  Robert  of  Chester  and  Gerhard  of  Cre- 
mona, and  such  translations  long  occupied  a  place  in  uni- 
versity instruction,  even  as  did  Al-Khowarizmi's  arith- 
metic. In  trigonometry  his  contributions  were  relatively 
less  important  and  yet  worthy  of  mention.  The  De  trian- 
gulis  omnimodis  libri  quinque,  by  Regiomontanus  (1436- 
76),  is  the  precurser  of  modern  trigonometries  although 
much  of  the  science  was  developed  in  earliest  times. 

The  period  from  the  sixth  century  (A.  D.)  to  the 
founding  of  the  universities  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  was  remarkably  unproductive  and  unprogres- 
sive.  The  mathematical  work  formed  no  exception.  In 
arithmetic  the  instruction  was  mainly  in  formal  defini- 
tions and  the  Greek  arithmetic^  corresponding  roughly 
to  the  elements  of  modern  number  theory,  and  excluding 
practical  computation.  However,  in  the  tenth  century 
the  abacus  began  to  be  used,  and  from  this  time  on  trea- 
tises explaining  its  operation  are  fairly  common.  Typi- 
cal text-books  of  these  centuries  are  represented  by  the 
extremely  sterile  arithmetic  and  geometry  of  Boethius 
(c.  480-524).  His  geometry  contains  only  a  fractional 
part  of  the  first  four  books  of  Euclid  without  proofs,  but 
with  some  additional  mensuration. 


MATHEMATICS  131 

European  Countries. — With  the  rise  of  the  universities 
the  geometry  of  Euclid  and  the  Hindu  art  of  reckoning 
became  regular  studies  of  the  curriculum.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  M.A.  degree  in  England 
presupposed  a  knowledge  of  the  first  six  books  of  Euclid. 
In  arithmetic  the  fundamental  operations  with  integers, 
square  root,  cube  root,  fractions,  and  progressions  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  students.  Algebra  had  no  place 
even  in  German  universities  until  late  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Geometry  was  not  generally  introduced  into 
the  secondary  schools  of  Germany  until  late  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  while  ordinary  arithmetic  preceded  it  by 
a  century.  Other  European  states  lagged  behind  Ger- 
many. England  and  France  did  not  add  geometry  to 
the  secondary  programme  until  the  eighteenth  century, 
while  algebra  in  the  schools  is  largely  an  innovation  of 
the  nineteenth. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  common  public 
secondary  schools  are  less  than  one  hundred  years  old. 
How  recent  is  the  general  instruction  in  algebra  is  shown 
•also  by  the  fact  that  Harvard,  in  1841,  first  required  al- 
gebra through  quadratics  for  entrance,  and  geometry  not 
until  1844.  The  subjects  themselves  enjoy  a  respectable 
antiquity,  but  their  appearance  in  secondary  schools  is  so 
recent  that  we  may  with  more  boldness  suggest  changes 
in  the  method  of  treatment. 

This  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  elementary 
branches  as  school  material  indicates  one  of  the  reasons 
for  continuing  the  subjects  in  the  school  programme. 
Wars,  political  divisions,  and  other  largely  external  facts 
of  the  lives  of  ancient  peoples  are  deemed  worthy  of  study. 
How  much  more  so  then  mathematics,  which  not  only  has 
contributed  to  scientific  advancement,  but  has  also  played 


132  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

so  large  a  part  in  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
world. 

Practical  Bearing  of  Subject. — The  practical  side  of 
mathematics  has  frequently  been  over-emphasized  in 
popular  discussions  of  its  function.  Serious  effort  has 
been  made  recently  to  find  problems  suitable  for  second- 
ary work  which  touch  vitally  the  lives  of  the  pupils  or 
their  parents.  How  varied  are  the  applications  of  mathe- 
matical reasoning  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  such  prob- 
lems are  taken  from  manual-training  work,  physics,  en- 
gineering, architecture,  masonry,  navigation,  agriculture, 
forestry,  drawing,  astronomy,  designing,  athletics,  pat- 
tern-making, economics,  and  carpentry.  And  yet,  were 
we  to  confine  the  instruction  in  arithmetic,  geometry, 
algebra,  and  trigonometry  to  those  phases  which  enjoy 
a  reasonable  measure  of  actual  application  the  time  de- 
voted to  these  subjects  could  be  cut  in  half.  Mathemat- 
ical instruction  must  justify  itself  as  educational  material 
aside  from  its  applied  values. 

Varied  Appeal  of  Subject. — While  the  universality  of 
the  language  of  mathematics  suggests  the  common  broth- 
erhood of  man,  the  contact  with  truth,  absolute  and 
eternal,  lifts  the  mind  out  of  its  ordinary  channels  into 
contemplation  of  the  eternal  of  the  universe.  The  beau- 
tiful and  sublime  in  mathematics  are  as  difficult  to  define 
as  in  music  or  in  art,  and  just  as  real.  One  aspect  of  the 
beauty  is  the  symmetry  even  in  such  simple  expressions 
as  (a+b)2=a2  +  2ab  +  b2,  (a  +  b)3=as  +  3a2b  +  3ab2+bs. 
Harmony  in  the  universe  of  mathematics  is  exhibited  by 
the  relations  between  arithmetical  and  geometrical  facts; 
while  another  aspect  of  beauty  is  obtained  when  these 
expressions  are  grasped  as  single  facts  of  the  expansion  of 
(a+b)B.  The  reign  of  law  apparent  here  is  satisfying  to 


MATHEMATICS  133 

the  reason.  That  mathematics  makes  this  general  appeal 
to  the  human  mind  is  clear  from  our  historical  sketch  and 
is  even  as  true  to-day  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks. 

The  game  element  is  not  to  be  despised  nor  is  the 
unique  stimulus  gained  from  the  successful  solution  of 
puzzling  problems.  Both  contribute  to  give  the  student 
a  longing  for  exploration  in  fresh  fields  as  well  as  a  sense 
of  mental  independence  not  developed  by  any  other 
school  discipline.  Further,  the  desire  for  truth  for  its 
own  sake  is  worth  cultivating  as  entirely  apart  from  any 
applications.  A  knowledge  of  the  elementary  truths  of 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  a  necessary  beginning  to  any  comprehension 
of  the  scheme  of  the  universe. 

Training  and  efficiency  come  from  continued  applica- 
tion along  one  line  of  progressive  activity.  Education 
and  culture  are  by-products  of  training  along  several 
lines.  More  than  any  other  practically  available  subject, 
the  sciences  under  discussion  furnish  a  body  of  consistent 
sequential  material  sufficient  to  occupy  the  attention  of 
the  child  for  a  period  of  years.  Equally  important  is 
the  fact  that  like  the  mother -tongue  the  language  of  math- 
ematics is  employed  in  the  daily  life  of  the  child;  to 
formulate  this  in  the  language  of  the  psychologist  there 
is  a  related  body  of  apperceptive  material  already  present 
in  the  child  consciousness.  He  has  an  active  and  fairly 
continuous  interest  in  number  and  form,  furnishing 
ample  material  to  build  upon. 

The  reasons  for  teaching  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigo- 
nometry need  not  be  discussed  separately,  as  the  one  dis- 
tinctive characteristic  which  makes  these  subjects  avail- 
able for  secondary  work  is  just  this  fact  that  they  are 
closely  and  logically  related.  Our  schools  have  happily 


134  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

discarded  fine  distinctions  between  algebra  and  arithme- 
tic, and  algebraic  symbolism  is  introduced  as  soon  as 
the  child  feels  the  need  for  it.  A  most  necessary  reform 
is  to  bring  about  a  somewhat  similar  fusion  of  the  ideas 
of  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry. 

Need  for  Mathematics. — The  ultimate  needs  of  society, 
and  the  present  needs  of  the  child  must  govern  the  selec- 
tion of  work  in  the  high  school  as  well  as  in  the  element- 
ary school.  How  varied  is  the  need  of  mathematical  rea- 
soning is  shown  by  the  numerous  developments  along 
mathematical  lines  in  other  fields,  e.  g.,  biometrics,  math- 
ematical chemistry,  and  mathematical  physics.  Analyt- 
ical and  graphical  treatment  of  statistics  is  employed  by 
the  economist,  the  philanthropist,  the  business  expert, 
the  actuary,  and  even  the  physician,  with  the  most  sur- 
prisingly valuable  results;  while  symbolic  language  in- 
volving mathematical  methods  has  become  a  part  of  well- 
nigh  every  large  business.  The  handling  of  pig-iron  does 
not  seem  to  offer  any  opportunity  for  mathematical  appli- 
cation. Yet  graphical  and  analytical  treatment  of  the 
data  from  long-continued  experiments  with  this  material 
at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
the  law  that  fatigue  varied  in  proportion  to  a  certain  rela- 
tion between  the  load  and  the  periods  of  rest.  Practical 
application  of  this  law  increased  the  amount  handled  by 
each  man  from  twelve  and  a  half  to  forty-seven  tons  per 
day.  Such  a  study  would  have  been  impossible  without 
preliminary  acquaintance  with  the  simple  invariable  ele- 
ments of  mathematics. 

Relation  between  Mathematics  and  Other  Subjects. — 
The  recent  wide-spread  movement  to  humanize  and  vi- 
talize the  work  of  the  school  has  affected  mathematical 
instruction  the  world  over.  This  has  culminated  in  the 


MATHEMATICS  135 

International  Commission  to  investigate  the  teaching  of 
mathematics.  Certain  features  of  this  comprehensive 
movement  are  making  a  wide  appeal.  Definite  attempt 
is  being  made  to  bring  the  mathematical  work  into  closer 
touch  with  other  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum  and 
with  life.  A  comparison  of  modern  school  texts  with 
older  ones  shows  clearly,  in  the  problems  presented,  the 
effect  of  this  movement.  Emphasis  is  also  placed  upon 
the  necessity  of  adapting  the  work  to  the  mental  develop- 
ment of  the  learner.  The  real  problems,  for  example, 
must  have  meaning  for  the  pupil,  must  parallel  his  stage 
of  psychic  development. 

The  Graphical  Method. — The  universal  aim  of  instruc- 
tion is  to  make  the  child  efficient  in  his  actual  work  in  the 
world.  An  essential  to  this  end  is  the  habit  of  functional 
thinking,  the  relating  of  one  body  of  facts  to  a  connected 
body  of  facts,  and  the  drawing  of  sound  inferences  there- 
from. Usually  the  graphical  method  is  simplest,  as,  for 
example,  the  relation  of  temperature  to  time  or  crop  statis- 
tics to  time  over  a  period  of  years.  The  interpretation  of 
such  functional  relations  is  part  of  the  business  of  sec- 
ondary instruction.  Any  large  comprehension  of  the  one- 
to-one  correspondence  of  one  set  of  data  with  another 
must  be  first  suggested  by  the  graph.  This  method  may 
be  said  to  have  achieved  a  positive  recognition  in  second- 
ary education.  While  much  has  been  said  in  recent  years 
about  laboratory  methods  in  mathematics,  and  while  a 
closer  correlation  between  physics  and  mathematics  is  de- 
sirable, yet  any  extensive  laboratory  exercises  are  foreign 
to  the  spirit  of  mathematical  instruction.  Since  the  data 
of  mathematics  are  the  products  of  thought,  and  thought 
alone,  the  applications  also  should  be  sought,  not  particu- 
larly in  especially  devised  artificial  exercises,  but  rather 


136  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  problems  germane  to  the  student's  experience.  The 
graph  and  the  use  of  squared  paper,  which,  in  reality, 
constitute  the  major  part  of  the  "laboratory  method," 
are  now  considered  a  part  of  the  algebra  work.  Simple 
illustrations  may  be  drawn  from  physics,  e.  g.,  s  ==  vt  +  c, 
emphasizing  also  the  use  of  other  letters  than  x,  y,  and  z. 
Of  other  usable  problems  especially  interesting  are  the 
graphical  time-tables  such  as  are  used  by  railroads.  Pu- 
pils will  enjoy  reporting  other  applications  of  graphical 
methods  from  trade  journals,  from  the  Scientific  Amer- 
ican, and  even  from  popular  magazines.  It  is  clear  that 
the  use  of  the  graph  carries  with  it  the  employment  of 
approximations  which  should  be  emphasized  not  only 
here  but  in  all  of  mathematical  teaching. 

Wise  Distribution  of  Time  Needed. — Fortunately,  our 
most  pressing  need  is  not  that  more  time  be  devoted  to 
mathematics  but  rather  that  the  time  accorded  be  more 
wisely  distributed.  The  problem  of  this  distribution  af- 
fects the  elementary  schools  as  much  as  the  secondary. 
The  connection  with  the  six-year  high-school  course,  pre- 
ceded by  six  years  of  elementary  schools,  is  intimate. 
Many  schools  are  giving  instruction  in  concrete  geometry 
and  algebra  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  More 
effective  work  is  being  accomplished,  in  general,  when 
this  readjustment  is  accompanied  by  the  departmental 
system  of  instruction,  because,  of  course,  better  mathe- 
matical training  for  teachers  is  thus  assured.  The  work 
in  concrete  geometry,  mensuration,  and  mechanical  draw- 
ing in  the  schools  should  be  related  closely  and  artic- 
ulately with  demonstrational  geometry,  e.  g.,  the  con- 
struction of  triangles  with  certain  parts  given  should  be 
directly  connected  with  the  corresponding  theorems  of 
demonstrational  geometry. 


MATHEMATICS  137 

Correlation  between  Algebra  and  Geometry. — In  the 

high  school  itself  closer  correlation  is  needed  between 
the  algebra  and  the  geometry.  Five  years  of  mathe- 
matics will  be  written  on  six-year  secondary-school  pro- 
grammes, instead  of  two  years  of  arithmetic,  one  year  of 
elementary  algebra,  one-half  year  of  advanced  algebra, 
one  year  of  plane  geometry,  and  one-half  year  of  solid 
geometry.  German,  French,  and  English  secondary 
schools  have  long  followed  a  somewhat  similar  scheme, 
demonstrational  geometry  and  algebra  running  through 
six  successive  years.  Recent  foreign  reforms  emphasize 
the  need  of  even  closer  correlation.  The  consequent  ex- 
tended familiarity  with  these  sciences  gives  a  readier  com- 
mand of  the  terminology,  and  insures  more  adequate  time 
for  the  absorption  of  new  and  speculative  conceptions  as 
they  naturally  arise.  This  intermingling  and  correlation 
of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  pos- 
sible with  this  procedure,  provides  a  more  natural  course 
for  developing  mathematical  and  functional  thinking. 

We  may  illustrate  by  the  mathematical  treatment  of 
(a  +  b)2  and  (a  —  b)2,  with  associated  ideas. 

Multiply  3  +  2  by  3;  by  2;  by  3  +  2. 

Multiply  10  +  7  by  10;  by  7;  by  10  +  7. 

Multiply  10  +  9  by  19;  100  +  6  by  100  +  6;  15  by  15;  115  by 

US- 

Multiply  10  +  x  by  10;  by  x;  by  10  +  x. 
Multiply  x  +  3  by  x;  by  3;  by  x  +  3. 
Multiply  5  +  3x  by  5  +  3x. 

The  problems  given  are  simply  suggestive  of  the  method 
and  it  is  understood  that  there  should  be  numerous  other 
exercises  with  this  form  (a  +  b)2  and  with  similar  prob- 
lems relating  to  (a  —  b)2.  This  principle  also  finds  appli- 
cation in  the  following  work. 


138 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


Geometric  treatment  of  many  problems  of  this  sort 
should  be  given. 


3)2=  ioa+  2-10-3  +  3s- 


2-s-x 


10x3 


102 


10x3 


5X 

52 

X2 

5x 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  i 


This  is  preparatory  also  to  a  geometrical  solution  of 
quadratic  equations  in  work  as  follows: 

x2  +  iox  =  39.  Begin  with  the  small  square  of  unknown  side  x  as 
in  Fig.  2.  Extend  two  sides  by  the  length  5,  forming  then  two 
rectangles  each  of  area  5x.  The  total  area  is  then  x2  +  iox,  which 
by  the  conditions  of  the  problem  equals  39.  Adding  the  small 
square,  25,  gives  64.  Therefore  the  side  of  the  larger  square  is  8. 
Subtracting  5  gives  3  for  the  value  of  x. 

A  question  naturally  arises  here  in  regard  to  a  similar 
treatment  of  forms  like  (10  +  3)*,  (x  +  3)*,  (a  +  b)3. 
The  possibility  of  geometrical  representation  should  be 
suggested  at  first  and  developed  more  fully  at  a  later 
time.  We  may  continue  with  (x  +  k)2  =  x2  +  2kx  +  k2 
and  (x  —  k)2  =  x2  —  2kx  +  k2,  as  formulas  with  ap- 
plication to  (a  +  2b)2,  (ie>7)2,  (x  +  3y)2,  (31  -  y)2, 
(96)2,  etc. 

The  numerical  applications  relate  to  the  former  ele- 
mentary multiplication  of  two-place  numbers,  and  suggest 
the  method  of  mental  multiplication  of  any  two  two-place 
numbers. 


MATHEMATICS 


139 


The  connection  of  the  formula  and  the  figure  with  the 
extraction  of  square  root  should  be  shown. 

The  Pythagorean  proposition  may  be  demonstrated 
with  the  above  figure. 


b)2-^  =  a2+b'. 


Or  again  by  the  following  figure  and  formulas: 


FIG.  4 


4ab 


(a-b)2  =  a2-2ab  +  b2.    c2  -  (a-b)2  +  —  -  a*  +  b'. 

2 

(a  +  b)2  is  finally  regarded  as  a  special  case  of  (a  +  b)n. 

Some  of  the  above  material  belongs  to  the  first  year  of 
a  five  or  six  year  high  school  course  in  mathematics  and 


140  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

some  to  the  fifth  or  sixth.  It  is  intended  to  be  suggestive 
and  not  for  consecutive  presentation,  unless  as  a  kind  of 
summary  in  the  last  year.  Lest  it  be  supposed  that  the 
illustration  given  is  unique  in  the  range  of  its  appli- 
cation, attention  is  called  to  the  equations  of  the  ad- 
vanced algebra,  x8 — 1  =  0,  x4 — 1=0,  x5 — 1  =  0,  which 
connect  with  the  regular  polygons  of  plane  geometry 
and  also  with  graphical  representation  of  complex 
numbers.  Similarly  ratio  and  proportion  are  suscep- 
tible of  analytical  and  geometrical  treatment  as  well  as 
practical  application. 

Future  Changes  in  Teaching. — The  changes  that  lie  in 
store  for  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
are  without  doubt  along  the  lines  indicated.  The  algebra 
work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  should  first  of  all 
generalize  the  arithmetic  that  precedes  and  at  the  same 
time  furnish  effectual  drill  in  formula  substitution.  The 
mensuration  of  simple  surfaces  and  solids,  the  construc- 
tion problems  of  drawing,  and  the  concrete  geometry  in 
these  years  should  be  more  closely  related  to  demonstra- 
tional  geometry,  and  this,  in  turn,  to  applied  problems  of 
decoration,  of  design,  and  to  the  trades.  Algebra,  geom- 
etry, and  trigonometry  should  be  more  closely  interwoven. 
Geometrical  solutions  of  quadratic  equations,  geometric 
and  algebraic  treatment  of  ratio  and  proportion  with  ap- 
plication to  the  lever  and  other  problems  from  physics, 
and  the  correspondence  of  theorems  of  plane  geometry 
with  theorems  of  trigonometry  are  further  illustrations  of 
possible  correlation. 

Oral  Work. — Oral  work  has  unfortunately  been  con- 
fined largely  to  arithmetic.  In  algebra  and  geometry 
many  problems  may  be  adapted  to  oral  treatment.  The 
fact  is  that  clear  exposition  of  the  method  to  be  employed 


MATHEMATICS  141 

in  solving  ten  simple  geometric  exercises,  without  setting 
the  pencil  to  paper,  is  worth  much  more  than  the  same 
time  devoted  to  a  single  difficult  exercise.  Not  only  this, 
but  the  fundamental  principles  are  more  clearly  exem- 
plified in  the  less  difficult  examples.  Simultaneous  black- 
board work  for  the  whole  class,  on  the  contrary,  has 
occupied  too  much  teaching  time  in  algebra  and  geometry. 
A  relatively  greater  proportion  of  time  should  be  given  to 
written  seat  work  and  oral  work.  These  best  prepare  for 
the  actual  problems  of  life,  which  are  both  oral  and 
written. 

Need  for  More  Simple  Work. — Again  the  exclusion  of 
topics  is  quite  as  significant  as  the  suggested  innovation 
of  method  of  treatment.  In  elementary  algebra  com- 
plicated factoring,  complicated  complex  fractions,  highest 
common  factor  and  lowest  common  multiple  by  the 
method  of  continued  division,  indeterminate  equations, 
and  inequalities  and  exceptional  cases  of  simultaneous 
quadratics  are  representative  of  topics  which  are  pedagog- 
ically  under  the  ban.  The  time  gained  is  to  be  devoted 
to  an  increased  number  of  simpler  problems  and  to  those 
whi,ch  can  be  treated  orally.  In  plane  and  solid  geome- 
try, maxima  and  minima  and  the  subject  of  formal  treat- 
ment of  incommensurable  cases  and  of  symmetry,  all  but 
the  elementary  principles,  are  excluded,  together  with  the 
most  difficult  exercises.  The  tendency  is  to  cut  down 
the  number  of  formal  propositions  to  a  minimum.  Exer- 
cises suitable  for  oral  practice  accompany  all  the  theorems 
and  are  combined  with  many  of  the  simple  problems  for 
written  solution.  So-called  "originals"  are  thus  effect- 
ually regarded  as  vital  parts  of  each  day's  work.  The 
pupils  learn  to  solve  by  solving.  In  trigonometry  De 
Moivre's  theorem  and  limits  and  series  are  relegated 


142  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  more  advanced  courses  in  college,  while  complicated 
exercises  in  trigonometric  transformation  give  way  to 
abundant  and  essential  drill  with  simpler  operations. 

Need  for  Professionally  Trained  Teachers. — Probably 
the  greatest  obstacle  to  pedagogical  advance  in  school 
mathematics  has  been  the  lack  of  adequately  prepared 
teachers.  Too  often  in  our  high  schools  teachers  have 
been  given  a  class  in  algebra  or  geometry  simply  to  fill  in 
the  planned  schedule.  Unified  and  correlated  work  in 
mathematics  throughout  a  period  of  years  requires  well- 
prepared  instructors.  While  the  American  situation  is 
improving  in  this  regard,  we  yet  fall  below  the  standards 
of  European  countries.  The  examination  required  for  a 
license  to  teach  in  a  German  gymnasium  is  quite  as 
severe  as  that  for  the  Ph.D.  degree.  Mathematical 
methodology  indicates  sufficiently  that  the  remedy  for 
our  situation  is  a  more  comprehensive  conception  of  the 
function  of  this  subject  and  more  intensive  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  in  subject-matter. 

College  graduation  may  now  be  assumed  as  the  mini- 
mum requisite  in  the  professional  equipment  of  second- 
ary school  teachers.  As  essentials  for  the  future  teacher 
of  mathematics  should  be  placed  courses  in  advanced 
algebra,  analytic  geometry,  projective  geometry,  the  cal- 
culus, and  one  course  in  physics  and  an  elementary  course 
in  astronomy.  The  history  of  mathematics  should  also, 
when  possible,  have  a  place  in  this  preparation  of  the 
teacher,  as  it  enhances  the  human  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject. More  difficult  to  obtain  and  yet  fully  as  needful 
is  instruction  in  method  of  teaching  mathematics  hand  in 
hand  with  observation  and  practice  teaching  under  compe- 
tent guidance  and  personal  direction.  Normal  schools 
have  insisted  for  some  fifty  years  on  such  work  in  the 


MATHEMATICS  143 

preparation  of  elementary  teachers.  Even  more  neces- 
sary is  this  actual  preliminary  experience  in  school- 
room environment  for  college  students  as  they  are  fur- 
ther removed  from  their  school-days.  The  recognition 
of  the  need  for  observation  and  practice  teaching,  as  well 
as  definite  instruction  in  methods  of  teaching  mathe- 
matics for  those  preparing  to  teach  in  our  secondary 
schools,  cannot  be  long  deferred.  Indeed,  the  organi- 
zation of  schools  of  education  in  so  many  of  our  large 
universities  heralds  the  near  approach  of  the  day  when  our 
high  school  teachers  will  have,  not  only  the  wider  prep- 
aration in  subject-matter  so  absolutely  essential  for  a 
larger  outlook,  but  also  some  definite  scientific  prepara- 
tion for  the  delicate  operations  and  the  essentially  psycho- 
logical insight  required  in  mathematical  teaching. 

A  formulation  of  requirements  in  mathematics  is  made 
by  a  committee  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society 
in  co-operation  with  committees  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association.  This  programme  has  been  adopted 
by  the  New  York  State  Education  Department  (1910), 
the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  and  other 
organizations. 

Elementary  Algebra. — The  four  fundamental  operations 
for  rational  algebraic  expressions. 

Factoring,  determination  of  highest  common  factor  and 
lowest  common  multiple  by  factoring. 

Fractions,  including  complex  fractions,  and  ratio  and 
proportion. 

Linear  equations,  both  numerical  and  literal,  contain- 
ing one  or  more  unknown  quantities. 

Problems  depending  upon  linear  equations. 

Radicals,  including  the  extraction  of  the  square  root 
of  polynomials  and  of  numbers. 


144  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Exponents,  including  the  fractional  and  negative. 

Quadratic  equations,  both  numerical  and  literal. 

Simple  cases  of  equations  with  one  or  more  unknown 
quantities,  that  can  be  solved  by  the  methods  of  linear 
or  quadratic  equations. 

Problems  depending  upon  quadratic  equations. 

The  binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

The  formulas  for  the  wth  term  and  the  sum  of  the  terms 
of  arithmetical  and  geometric  progressions,  with  applica- 
tions. 

It  is  assumed  that  pupils  will  be  required  throughout 
the  course  to  solve  numerous  problems  which  involve 
putting  questions  into  equations.  Some  of  these  prob- 
lems should  be  chosen  from  mensuration,  from  physics, 
and  from  commercial  life.  The  use  of  graphical  meth- 
ods and  illustrations,  particularly  in  connection  with  the 
solution  of  equations,  is  also  expected. 

Advanced  Algebra. — Permutations  and  combinations, 
limited  to  simple  cases.  Complex  numbers,  with  graph- 
ical representation  of  sums  and  differences. 

Determinants,  chiefly  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
orders,  including  the  use  of  minors  and  the  solution  of 
linear  equations. 

Numerical  equations  of  higher  degree,  and  so  much 
of  the  theory  of  equations,  with  graphical  methods,  as  is 
necessary  for  their  treatment,  including  Descartes'  rule 
of  signs  and  Horner's  method,  but  not  Sturm's  functions 
or  multiple  roots. 

Plane  Geometry. — The  usual  theorems  and  construc- 
tions of  good  text-books,  including  the  general  properties 
of  plane  rectilinear  figures;  the  circle  and  the  measure- 
ment of  angles;  similar  polygons;  areas;  regular  poly- 
gons and  the  measurement  of  the  circle. 


MATHEMATICS  145 

The  solution  of  numerous  original  exercises,  including 
loci  problems. 

Applications  to  the  mensuration  of  lines  and  plane  sur- 
faces. 

Solid  Geometry. — The  usual  theorems  and  construc- 
tions of  good  text-books,  including  the  relations  of  planes 
and  lines  in  space;  the  properties  and  measurement  of 
prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders,  and  cones;  the  sphere  and 
the  spherical  triangle. 

The  solution  of  numerous  original  exercises,  including 
loci  problems. 

Applications  to  the  mensuration  of  surfaces  and  solids. 

Trigonometry. — Definitions  and  relations  of  the  six 
trigonometric  functions  as  ratios;  circular  measurement 
of  angles. 

Proofs  of  principal  formulas,  in  particular  for  the  sine, 
cosine,  and  tangent  of  the  sum  and  the  difference  of  two 
angles,  the  product  expressions  for  the  sum  or  the  differ- 
ence of  two  sines  or  of  two  cosines,  etc. ;  the  transforma- 
tion of  trigonometric  expressions  by  means  of  these  for- 
mulas. 

Solution  of  trigonometric  equations  of  a  simple  char- 
acter. 

Theory  and  use  of  logarithms  (without  the  introduc- 
tion of  work  involving  infinite  series). 

The  solution  of  right  and  oblique  triangles  and  practi- 
cal applications,  including  the  solution  of  right  spherical 
triangles. 

Plane  Trigonometry. — This  subject  is  the  same  as  the 
preceding  except  that  no  topics  from  spherical  trigonom- 
etry are  included. 


CHAPTER   VII 
PHYSICS 

FREDERICK  EDWARD  KESTER,  PH.D. 
HEAD  OF  DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICS,  UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS 

Elements  of  Interest  to  Student. — Before  the  subject- 
matter  of  modern  physics  had  become  so  specialized  as 
to  take  its  place  as  one  of  the  natural  sciences,  the  "  phi- 
losophers" of  this  "calling"  were  accustomed  to  go  far 
afield  in  their  search  for  material.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  decide,  in  an  attempt  to  understand  the  motives  which 
urged  them  ahead  in  the  search,  whether  these  were  more 
nearly  akin  to  the  motives  of  the  hunter  or  to  those  of 
the  explorer.  That  both  incentives  are  present,  and 
that  both  serve  this  end,  are  fairly  evident;  both  the  ela- 
tion in  the  contemplation  of  new  lands,  of  new  and 
broader  views,  and  the  glow  of  the  hunter  with  the  game 
at  his  feet  are  the  just  dues  of  the  follower  of  nature's 
truths.  The  motive  force  of  the  student  of  modern 
specialized  science,  no  less  than  that  of  the  earlier  "nat- 
ural philosopher,"  has  in  it  a  large  element  of  the  Wissens- 
drang  of  the  explorer,  and  the  other  element  of  the  excite- 
ment of  the  chase. 

Running  beside  these  two  elements,  always  in  close 
co-operation  with  them,  is  another  line  of  activity,  with 
its  effects  far  more  noticeable  in  our  modern  sciences 
than  in  their  predecessors,  namely  the  correlation  of  the 
landmarks  already  discovered  and  studied — the  general- 

146 


PHYSICS  147 

ization  of  our  gathered  material  into  laws  and  principles 
of  science.  In  no  other  field  of  intellectual  work  is  this 
process  better  exemplified  than  in  physics.  So  well  de- 
veloped are  the  fundamental  laws  of  this  science  and  so 
solidly  founded  its  important  theories,  that  even  the  long 
reaches  into  new  lands  which  have  been  made  within  the 
last  two  decades,  and  the  strange  and  wonderful  phenom- 
ena brought  back  from  the  new  territory,  have  served 
more  to  strengthen  and  to  unify  these  theories  than  to 
disconcert  them. 

It  is  the  generalizing  method  of  physics  which  Mach, 
in  his  "Mechanics,"  praises  so  highly  for  the  principle 
of  economy  inherent  in  it.  As  he  makes  so  clear,  it  is 
the  economy  of  representing  in  mental  picture  an  actual 
experience  which  gives  science  its  main  justification  for 
existence;  it  saves  us  the  time  and  trouble  of  re-expe- 
riencing on  every  occasion  a  phenomenon  of  nature,  by 
representing  the  experience  to  our  minds  in  terms  of  a 
general  law.  We  see,  from  this  point  of  view,  an  expla- 
nation of  the  trend  of  which  the  subject-matter  of  modern 
science  is  indicative.  As  an  instance,  we  find  an  ex- 
planation of  the  existence  of  the  wonderfully  simple  laws 
of  refraction  of  light  which  express  all  of  the  exceedingly 
complex  and  beautiful  phenomena  attendant  upon  the 
passage  of  light  from  one  medium  to  another.  We  have, 
as  well,  an  explanation  of  the  existence  of  a  theory  which 
shall  expound  the  real  significance  of  the  laws  of  refrac- 
tion— explanation  for  the  hard  struggle,  even,  by  which 
this  wave  theory  of  light  was  gradually  brought  out  of 
the  mere  haze  of  faltering  hypothesis  into  its  present 
firmly  established  position.  Such  explanation  acts  as  a 
powerful  sustainer  and  guide  for  the  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm of  a  student  of  science;  for  this  reason  alone  the 


148  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

reading  of  the  section  on  the  "Economy  of  Science," 
in  Mach,  would  be  worth  as  much  as  the  command  of 
one  of  the  broad  and  masterful  generalizations  of  the 
science. 

The  Seven  Ultimate  Concepts. — As  we  follow,  in  the 
study  of  physics,  the  play  of  forces,  now  on  masses,  now 
on  quantities  of  electricity,  producing  sometimes  merely 
strains,  at  other  times  motions,  and  as  we  follow  the 
streaming  of  energy,  here  as  light,  there  as  electromag- 
netic waves,  again  as  convection  currents  carrying  heat 
in  their  paths,  we  meet  repeatedly  the  "ultimate  con- 
cepts" of  space  and  time,  mass  and  inertia,  electricity 
and  ether,  and  of  energy  as  the  result  of  the  interactions  of 
the  others.  Still  other  concepts  than  these  seven  we  en- 
counter along  the  way,  but  they  lead  us  on,  in  each  case, 
to  one  or  more  of  the  "ultimate  concepts"  *  just  enumer- 
ated. 

Strange  to  say,  the  remarkable  growth  of  physics  dur- 
ing the  last  two  decades  did  not  necessitate  the  introduc- 
tion of  any  new  concept  into  this  group  of  seven;  indeed 
the  new  phenomena,  which  have  been  brought  into  the 
science  since  Roentgen's  discovery  of  the  radiations  now 
bearing  his  name,  have  served  to  draw  the  former  group 
into  closer  relationship,  and  if  any  change  occurs  in  their 
number  as  a  result  of  this  development  it  would  seem, 
more  probably,  to  be  the  incorporation  of  two  or  three  of 
them  into  one.  After  the  spirit  of  physics  had  brought, 
during  the  past  century,  the  older  concepts  of  magnetism 
and  of  frictional  electricity  and  the  newer  one  of  current 
electricity  into  their  present  relationship,  and  had  proved 
that  the  phenomena  of  radiant  heat  and  light  belong  to 

1  See  Nichols,  E.  F.,  on  "  Physics,"  Popular  Science  Monthly,  72,  323; 
1908. 


PHYSICS  149 

the  same  family,  its  next  great  move  was  to  prove  an  in- 
timate kinship  between  electricity  and  matter. 

Seen  from  this  point  of  view,  physics  presents  an  ad- 
mirably well  organized  front  to  the  observer.  That  so 
great  a  part  of  the  many  and  multiform  physical  hap- 
penings of  our  every-day  life,  whether  they  occur  within 
doors  or  in  the  open,  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  field, 
should  be  reducible  in  their  interpretations  to  so  few 
terms,  is  truly  incitement  to  wonder  and  admiration.  It 
is  a  point  of  view  to  which  we  should  return  again  and 
again  with  our  classes  when  we  tire  of  the  detailed  con- 
sideration of  the  laws  of  the  science. 

What  Physics  Has  Accomplished. — Not  to  the  "inner 
organization"  alone  of  physics  are  we  limited  in  our 
admiration;  its  accomplishments,  for  our  comforts,  our 
necessities,  and  for  our  health,  are  even  marvellous.  We 
have  been  accustomed  for  years  to  the  praises  of  our 
telephones,  our  telegraphs,  our  steam-engines,  until  now 
the  tendency  is  to  take  these  and  innumerable  other 
developments  as  matters  of  course.  Of  late  years,  how- 
ever, we  have  been  amazed  again  by  the  throbbing  of 
wireless  electric  signals  across  an  ocean,  using  the  physi- 
cist's ether  as  a  medium  and  the  ocean's  waves  as  a  guid- 
ing surface — we  have  been  amazed  to  see  the  structure 
of  the  atom  taking  form  under  the  searching  gaze  of  the 
electron  theory.  Now  all  of  these  things,  old  and  new, 
are  the  children  of  the  science  of  physics,  children  brought 
to  full  stature  by  the  dauntless  courage  and  energy  of  men 
who  saw  visions  of  their  usefulness  to  the  human  race. 

Moral  Value  of  Physics. — Nor  is  the  purely  practical 
advantage,  of  which  we  hear  so  much  in  these  days, 
obtained  from  knowledge  of  physical  laws  and  principles 
through  the  better  control  of  the  physical  phenomena 


150  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

surrounding  us  in  every-day  life — through  applications  to 
engineering  and  to  the  industries — the  only  one  worthy 
of  notice.  In  common  with  all  sciences  the  training  in 
physics  has  a  moral  value.  It  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
truth  only  counts  toward  the  building  up  of  science;  that 
falsehood  is  not  only  valueless  in  this  regard,  but  posi- 
tively harmful,  since  it  requires  frequently  the  expendi- 
ture of  more  energy  to  kill  it  than  was  used  to  put  it  into 
existence,  so  that  there  is  the  double  waste  of  effort  which, 
properly  used  at  the  start,  would  have  brought  us  far 
along  in  the  pursuit.  There  is  also,  I  believe,  a  develop- 
ment of  conscience  to  be  got  from  the  careful  statement 
of  exact  laws,  to  be  got  as  well  from  the  careful  manipu- 
lation of  apparatus  in  our  laboratories.  It  is,  indeed, 
difficult  to  see  how  a  student,  if  he  has  entered  at  all  into 
the  spirit  of  this  science,  can  come  away  from  the  study 
of  it  without  an  increased  appreciation  of  downright 
honesty. 

Status  of  Physics  in  High  Schools. — Whatever  may  be 
the  judgment  of  others  concerning  these  last  claims,  all 
firm  believers  in  the  general  educational  qualifications 
of  physics  will  rejoice  in  the  gradual  change  which  has 
come  about  in  the  status  of  the  subject  in  the  high  school 
curriculum;  for  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  time 
allotted  to  the  subject,  and  the  fairly  general  recognition 
and  adoption  of  the  advantages  of  laboratory  training, 
these,  with  the  marked  improvement  in  the  scientific  at- 
mosphere emanating  from  the  available  text-books,  must 
all  serve  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  science  for 
that  great  group  of  citizens  who  come  out  from  our  high 
schools. 

Character  of  Early  Instruction. — Under  the  name 
natural  philosophy  something  approximating  the  present 


PHYSICS  151 

subject-matter  of  physics  was  taught  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  America  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  past  cen- 
tury. We  have  available  fairly  definite  evidence  of  the 
character  of  the  work  done  thus  early,  from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  text-books  which  have  been  handed  down  to 
us  from  that  period.  Though  the  subject-matter  of  these 
text-books  differs  not  greatly,  in  the  topics  discussed, 
from  that  of  more  recent  ones,  the  method  of  treatment 
is  decidedly  different.  From  a  method  essentially  in- 
forming in  character,  by  which  the  authors  of  the  older 
books  gave,  mainly  in  dogmatic  statements,  the  laws  of 
physics  along  with  many  interesting  but  unrelated  facts 
of  the  science,  all  with  little  or  no  indication  of  the  ex- 
perimental processes  by  which  this  scientific  material 
had  been  developed,  there  is  a  far  cry  to  the  method  of 
approach  as  followed  by  recent  writers;  their  studies  of 
the  subject  are,  generally  speaking,  logical  in  character, 
and  the  spirit  of  the  experimental  method  of  the  science 
seems  evident  throughout.  From  the  quantity  of  ma- 
terial handled  in  the  older  texts  one  can  judge  that  the 
relative  importance  of  the  subject  in  the  curriculum  was 
not  what  the  science,  by  just  right,  could  claim  even  in 
those  days. 

Introduction  of  Laboratory  Instruction. — The  labora- 
tory feature  of  the  secondary  school  treatment  was  not 
introduced  until  late  in  the  seventies;  a  very  few  high 
schools  pretended  in  1880  to  give  any  laboratory  instruc- 
tion to  their  students.  Yet  something  of  the  spirit  of  the 
laboratory  must  have  been  in  the  air  in  those  days,  for 
when  Gage's  "Elements  of  Physics"  appeared  in  the 
early  eighties,  fairly  well  imbued  with  the  idea  of  individ- 
ual experimentation,  it  acquired  wide  use  and  influence 
largely  because  of  this  very  feature.  It  was  about  this 


152  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

time  (1886  by  actual  record)  that  Harvard  College  began 
to  lead  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  country  by 
an  entrance  requirement  of  laboratory  instruction.  The 
innovation  was  made  in  a  very  radical  manner,  we  must 
judge,  when  we  consider  the  decided  change  made  there- 
by in  the  former  attitude  toward  the  subject.  The  em- 
phasis was  laid  almost  wholly  on  laboratory  instruction, 
with  little  apparent  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  out- 
look on  the  science,  got  from  laboratory  work  alone, 
must  be  somewhat  fragmentary;  there  was  not  available 
the  amount  of  time  necessary  for  the  large  number  of  in- 
dividual experiments  which  would  cover  the  field  satis- 
factorily. The  change  was  too  radical  indeed;  in  1897 
Harvard  modified  its  specifications  as  to  the  form  of  ele- 
mentary physics  which  it  would  recognize,  laying  more 
stress  upon  text  discussions  and  lecture  demonstrations. 

The  spread  of  the  laboratory  idea  in  the  West  pro- 
ceeded with  more  deliberation.  The  high  schools  of  the 
country  have  very  generally  admitted  the  principle  of 
this  conception — in  a  few,  unfortunately,  more  freely 
than  they  have  admitted  the  practice — and  although  the 
development  is  considerably  short  of  ideal,  yet  the  state 
of  affairs,  generally,  has  the  advantage  and  the  strength 
which  are  the  result  of  steady  growth.  There  are,  of 
course,  some  of  our  high  schools  (too  many,  indeed)  in 
which  the  laboratory  feature  is  so  little  developed  that  it 
stands  now  more  as  a  pretence  and  as  an  excuse  for  a 
sham  relationship  of  these  schools  with  neighboring  col- 
leges and  universities,  than  as  a  device  of  real  educational 
value  in  physics. 

Requirements  in  Physics. — The  high  school  unit  of 
physics,  as  it  is  defined  by  the  various  teachers'  associa- 
tions of  the  United  States,  may  be  said  fairly  to  be  a 


PHYSICS  153 

satisfactory  standard  for  our  schools  with  their  present 
organization.  The  specifications  of  the  unit,  with  con- 
siderable uniformity,  call  for  a  treatment  of  the  subject 
in  five  regular  periods  a  week  throughout  the  usual  school 
year.  Commonly  four  of  these  periods  (of  the  usual 
forty-five  minutes)  are  spent  in  the  class  work  of  demon- 
strations, recitations,  and  problems,  while  the  other,  a 
double  period,  is  spent  in  laboratory  work.  This  prac- 
tice is  in  keeping  with  the  specification  that  thirty  or 
forty  experiments,  predominantly  quantitative  in  char- 
acter, should  be  performed  by  each  student  during  the 
course.  Not  infrequently  the  arrangement  is  found  in 
which  three  periods  are  used  for  the  class  work  and  two 
double  periods  for  the  laboratory.  There  is  much  to  be 
said  in  favor  of  the  latter  arrangement  of  the  course,  and 
yet  the  choice  between  the  two  cannot  be  made  fairly 
without  due  consideration  of  the  other  subjects  in  the 
school  curriculum.  A  course  in  chemistry,  generally 
with  a  large  part  of  its  work  done  in  the  laboratory, 
imparting  thereby  considerable  manipulative  skill,  and 
even  well-organized  courses  in  manual  training,  if  these 
precede  the  physics  course,  would  lead  one  to  choose  the 
former  apportionment  of  periods  between  the  class  and 
laboratory. 

Inxthis  connection  some  consideration  of  the  qualities 
of  the  laboratory  and  class-room  features  may  aid  us,  not 
only  in  determining  the  amounts  of  each  to  be  incorpo- 
rated in  the  course,  but  also  in  developing  a  well-balanced 
treatment  of  the  content  when  the  adjustment  between 
the  two  parts  has  once  been  made.  The  laboratory  work, 
mainly  quantitative  in  character,  accompanied  with  a 
well-kept  note-book,  is  essential  to  a  concrete  and  de- 
tailed understanding  of  physical  laws;  from  no  other 


154  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

part  of  the  course  can  our  pupils  gain  first-hand  knowl- 
edge of  the  foundations  of  the  science.  But  the  labora- 
tory does  not  offer  a  rapid  method  of  mastering  the  laws 
and  principles  of  physics,  although  it  does  offer  an  in- 
tensive method.  With  a  given  amount  of  time  available 
for  the  course,  the  usual  arrangement  of  its  content  is 
made  as  a  compromise  between  a  well-rounded  develop- 
ment of  the  subject  and  a  thorough  understanding  of 
disconnected  parts.  Just  where  the  line  of  adjustment  is 
to  be  drawn  depends  largely  upon  local  conditions — upon 
the  presence  or  absence  of  related  and  contributory  sub- 
jects in  the  same  school,  and  even  upon  the  interests  of 
the  community  in  which  the  school  is  located.  For  the 
laboratory  work  by  the  pupil  and  the  demonstrations  by 
the  instructor  should  be  so  correlated  as  to  bring  to  the 
pupil  as  complete  an  appreciation  of  the  experimental 
development  of  the  subject-matter  as  is  possible  with  the 
equipment  of  the  school.  At  no  time  should  we  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  physics  is  an  experimental  science  and 
needs,  therefore,  for  its  proper  development,  as  much 
of  experimental  treatment  as  we  can  give  it.  Now  the 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  comprehend  fully  the  significance 
of  a  demonstration  experiment,  which  is  performed  not 
directly  by  himself,  depends  considerably  upon  the  train- 
ing which  he  has  had  as  a  child  at  play,  upon  the  train- 
ing which  he  has  unconsciously  acquired  in  the  every- 
day life  of  his  community,  and  again,  among  many  other 
things,  upon  the  training  which  he  has  received  in  the 
previous  courses  of  his  school  career.  The  more  the 
previous  life  of  the  child  has  led  him  to  think  in  terms 
of  the  relations  and  processes  of  the  physical  world,  the 
more  apt  he  will  be  in  realizing  the  full  significance  of 
demonstration  experiments,  and  indeed  of  such  text  and 


PHYSICS  155 

class  discussions  as  are  given  without  these  illustrations. 
In  an  industrial  community,  where  the  daily  content 
of  thought  of  the  people  is  predominantly  mechanical, 
the  main  burden  of  the  conversation  of  the  home  perhaps 
of  physical  import,  in  cities  where  one  meets  such  varied 
and  striking  applications  of  physical  principles,  the  teach- 
ing of  this  science  presents  a  decidedly  different  problem 
from  that  which  one  encounters  in  a  rural  or  in  a  com- 
mercial community.  It  is  in  these  last  named  eviron- 
ments  that  the  teaching  of  physics  and  chemistry  needs 
every  concrete  aid  which  possibly  can  be  given;  it  is 
here  that  the  plan  of  giving  up  two  double  periods  of  the 
week  to  laboratory  instruction,  leaving  three  single  periods 
for  recitations  and  demonstrations,  will  find  its  greatest 
opportunity.  In  a  commercial  locality,  particularly,  the 
instructor  will  find  fewer  physical  conceptions  common 
upon  which  he  can  draw  for  the  proper  illumination  of 
his  discussions  and  demonstrations.  Here  many  con- 
crete examples  of  fundamental  principles  will  require 
careful  treatment,  while  in  an  industrial  community 
they  would  appear  self-evident.  A  requirement  of  brief 
lecture  notes  from  the  pupils,  to  outline  the  salient  points 
of  each  demonstration — say,  the  object  of  the  experiment, 
the  apparatus  used,  and  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from 
the  conduct  of  the  experiment — will  serve  to  bring  a  con- 
crete idea  of  the  significance  of  a  phenomenon  which 
has  developed  outside  of  the  pupil's  own  control.  With- 
out this  aid,  the  idea  may  take  the  indefinite  form  so 
often  characteristic  of  second-hand  experiences. 

The  Physics  Unit. — As  examples  of  the  specifications 
of  the  physics  unit,  which  have  been  made  by  the  vari- 
ous teachers'  organizations  throughout  the  country, 
may  be  given  the  definition  by  the  North  Central  As- 


156  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

sociation  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  made  in 
1908,  and  that  by  the  College  Entrance  Examination 
Board,  made  in  1909.  Variations  from  these  defini- 
tions may  be  noted  in  the  cases  of  several  later  ones, 
but  for  most  part  the  variations  are  in  unessential  feat- 
ures. I  quote  here  the  text  of  the  definition  adopted 
by  the  North  Central  Association  on  recommendation 
of  its  committee  which  was  appointed  for  the  purpose 
of  discussing  this  problem: 

THE    NORTH    CENTRAL    ASSOCIATION'S    DEFINITION    OF 
THE    UNIT    IN    PHYSICS 

"i.  The  unit  in  physics  consists  of  at  least  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  periods  of  forty-five  minutes  each  (equal 
to  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  hours)  of  assigned  work. 
Two  periods  of  laboratory  work  count  as  one  of  assigned 
work. 

"2.  The  work  consists  of  three  closely  related  parts; 
namely,  class  work,  lecture-demonstration  work,  and 
laboratory  work.  At  least  one-fourth  of  the  time  shall 
be  devoted  to  laboratory  work. 

"3.  It  is  very  essential  that  double  periods  be  arranged 
for  the  laboratory  work. 

"4.  The  class  work  includes  the  study  of  at  least  one 
standard  text. 

"5.  In  the  laboratory  each  student  shall  perform  at 
least  thirty  individual  experiments,  and  keep  a  careful 
note-book  record  of  them.  Twenty  of  these  experi- 
ments must  be  quantitative;  each  of  these  must  illus- 
trate an  important  physical  principle  which  is  one  of  the 
starred  topics  in  the  syllabus  of  required  topics,  and  no 
two  must  illustrate  the  same  principle. 


PHYSICS  157 

"6.  In  the  class  work  the  student  must  be  drilled  to 
an  understanding  of  the  use  of  the  general  principles 
which  make  up  the  required  syllabus.  He  must  be  able 
to  apply  these  principles  intelligently  to  the  solution  of 
simple,  practical,  concrete  problems. 

"7.  Examinations  will  be  framed  to  test  the  student's 
understanding  of  and  ability  to  use  the  general  principles 
in  the  required  syllabus,  as  indicated  in  6. 

"8.  The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  follow  the  order 
of  topics  in  the  syllabus  unless  he  wishes  to  do  so." 

SYLLABUS    OF    REQUIRED    TOPICS 

This  list  of  required  topics  is  not  intended  to  include  all  the  ma- 
terial for  the  year's  work.  It  is  purposely  made  short,  in  order  that 
each  teacher  may  be  free  to  supplement  it  in  a  way  that  fits  his  in- 
dividual environment.  It  does  include  those  topics  which  all  agree 
are  essential  to  a  first  course  in  physics,  and  which  are  capable  of 
comprehension,  at  least  to  the  extent  specified  in  number  6  of  the 
definition  of  the  unit,  by  boys  and  girls  of  high  school  age. 

*i.    Weight,  centre  of  gravity. 

*2.    Density. 

*£.    Parallelogram  of  forces. 

4.    Atmospheric  pressure;  barometer. 
*5.    Boyle's  law. 

6.    Pressure  due  to  gravity  in  liquids  with  a  free  surface;  vary- 
ing depth,  density,  and  shape  of  vessel. 
*7.     Buoyancy;  Archimedes'  principle. 
*8.    Pascal's  law;  hydraulic  press. 

9.  Work  as  force  times  distance,  and  its  measurement  in  foot- 
pounds, and  gram-centimetres. 

10.  Energy  measure  by  work. 

*n.  Law  of  machines;   work  obtained  not  greater  than  work 

put  in;  efficiency. 

*i2.  Inclined  plane. 

*i3.  Pulleys,  wheel,  and  axle. 


158  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

*i4.  Measurement  of  moments  by  the  product  of  force  times 
arm;   lexers. 

15.  Thermometers;  Fahrenheit  and  Centigrade  scales. 

16.  Heat  quantity  and  its  measurement  in  gram  calories. 
*iy.  Specific  heat. 

*i8.  Evaporation;   heat  of  vaporization  of  water. 

*i9.  Dew  point;  clouds  and  rain. 

*2o.  Fusion  and  solidification;   heat  of  fusion. 

21.  Heat  transference  by  conduction  and  convection. 

22.  Heat  transference  by  radiation. 

23.  Qualitative  description  of  the  transfer  of  energy  by  waves. 

24.  Wave  length  and  period  of  waves. 

25.  Sound  originates  at  a  vibrating  body  and  is  transmitted  by 
waves  in  air. 

*26.  Pitch  and  period  of  sound. 

*27.  Relation  between  the  wave  length  of  a  tone  and  the  length 
of  a  string  or  organ  pipe. 

*28.  Resonance. 

29.  Beats. 

30.  Rectilinear  propagation  of  light;   pin-hole  camera. 
*3i.  Reflection  and  its  laws;   image  of  a  plane  mirror. 
*32.  Refraction,  and  its  use  in  lenses;  the  eye,  the  camera. 
*33.  Prisms  and  dispersion. 

34.  Velocity  of  light. 

35.  Magnetic  attractions  and  repulsions. 
*36.  Field  of  force  about  a  magnet. 

37.  The  earth  a  magnet;  compass. 

38.  Electricity  by  friction. 

39.  Conductors  and  insulators. 
*4<D.  Simple  galvanic  cell. 

*4i.  Electrolysis;  definition  of  the  ampere. 

*42.  Heating  effects;  resistance;  definition  of  the  ohm. 

*43-  Ohm's  law;  a  definition  of  the  volt. 

*44.  Magnetic  field  about  a  current;  electromagnets. 

*45.  Electromagnetic  induction. 

*46.  Simple  alternating  current  dynamo  of  one  loop. 

*47-  Electromagnetic  induction  by  breaking  a  circuit;   primary 
and  secondary. 

48.  Conservation  of  energy. 


PHYSICS  159 

The  text  of  the  definition,  adopted  by  the  College  En- 
trance Examination  Board  on  recommendation  of  its 
committee  of  secondary  school  teachers,  is  as  follows: 

THE  COLLEGE  ENTRANCE  EXAMINATION  BOARD'S 
DEFINITION 

GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

1.  The  Unit  in  Physics  consists  of  at  least  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  hours  of  sixty  minutes  each.     Time 
spent  in  the  laboratory  shall  be  counted  at  one-half  its 
face  value. 

2.  The  Course  of  Instruction  in  Physics  should  in- 
clude: 

(a)  The  study  of  one  standard  text-book,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  a  connected  and  comprehensive  view 
of  the  subject.  The  student  should  be  given  opportu- 
nity and  encouragement  to  consult  other  scientific  litera- 
ture. 

(&)  Instruction  by  lecture  table  demonstrations  to  be 
used  mainly  for  illustration  of  the  facts  and  phenomena 
of  physics  in  their  qualitative  aspects  and  in  their  prac- 
tical applications. 

(c)  Individual  laboratory  work  consisting  of  experi- 
ments requiring  at  least  the  time  of  thirty  double  periods. 
The  experiments  performed  by  each  student  should 
number  at  least  thirty.  Those  named  in  the  appended 
list  are  suggested  as  suitable.  The  work  should  be  so 
distributed  as  to  give  a  wide  range  of  observation  and 
practice. 

The  aim  of  laboratory  work  should  be  to  supplement 
the  pupil's  fund  of  concrete  knowledge  and  to  cultivate 
his  power  of  accurate  observation  and  clearness  of  thought 


160  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  expression.  The  exercises  should  be  chosen  with  a 
view  to  furnishing  forceful  illustrations  of  fundamental 
principles  and  their  practical  applications.  They  should 
be  such  as  yield  results  capable  of  ready  interpretation, 
obviously  in  conformity  with  theory,  and  free  from  the 
disguise  of  unintelligible  units. 

Slovenly  work  should  not  be  tolerated,  but  the  effort 
for  precision  should  not  lead  to  the  use  of  apparatus  or 
processes  so  complicated  as  to  obscure  the  principle  in- 
volved. 

3.  Throughout   the  whole   course   special   attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  common  illustrations  of  physical 
laws  and  to  their  industrial  applications. 

4.  In  the  solution  of  numerical  problems,  the  student 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  the  simple  princi- 
ples of  algebra  and  geometry,  to  reduce  the  difficulties  of 
solution.     Unnecessary  mathematical  difficulties  should 
be  avoided  and  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  the 
student's  losing  sight  of  the  concrete  facts,  in  the  manip- 
ulation of  symbols. 

SYLLABUS 

The  following  is  a  list  of  topics  which  are  deemed  fundamental 
and  which  should  therefore  be  included  in  every  well-planned  course 
of  elementary  physics.  Only  a  few  of  the  most  important  applica- 
tions of  these  topics  have  been  mentioned;  teachers  should  add  lib- 
erally to  them.  It  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will  arrange  these 
topics  in  such  order  as  to  suit  his  individual  needs. 

I.    INTRODUCTION. 

A.    Metric  System. 

Linear  measure,  units: — metre,  centimetre,  millimetre. 
Square  measure — square  centimetre. 
Cubic  measure — cubic  centimetre,  litre. 
Mass: — kilogram,  gram. 


PHYSICS  161 

B.  Volume,  weight,  density. 

C.  States  of  matter:  solids,  liquids,  gases. 

II.    MECHANICS. 
Fluids. 

A.  Pascal's  Law  of  Fluid  Pressure.    The  hydraulic  press. 

B.  Pressure  due  to  gravity. 

Pressure  varying  with  depth  and  density  of  the  liquid. 
Total  pressure  on  the  bottom  of  a  vessel. 

C.  Principle  of  Archimedes. 

D.  Specific  gravity  of  solids  and  liquids. 

E.  Gases — relation  between  pressure  and  volume. 

F.  Atmospheric  pressure,  buoyancy,  the  barometer,  pumps 

for  liquids  and  gases. 
Solids. 

A.  Principle  of  moments. 

Parallelogram  of  forces.    (Resolution  of  forces,  rectan- 
gular only.) 

B.  Newton's  Laws  of  Motion. 

Force,  momentum,  velocity,  acceleration. 

Uniformly  accelerated  motion,  when  initial  or  final 

velocity  is  zero. 
Falling  bodies. 

C.  Mechanical  work. 

Energy — potential  and  kinetic. 
Conservation  of  energy. 

D.  Machines:  Principle  of  work  applied  to  machines,  me- 

chanical advantage,  friction,  efficiency.     (Use  terms, 
effort  and  resistance.) 
Lever,  wheel  and  axle,  pulleys,  inclined  plane. 

E.  Uniform  circular  motion;    centrifugal  and  centripetal 

forces  qualitatively  illustrated. 

F.  Law  of  universal  gravitation. 
Relation  of  weight  to  mass. 
Centre  of  gravity. 
Stability. 

HI.    HEAT. 

A.  Heat — a  form  of  energy. 

Temperature,  Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  scales. 

B.  Conduction,  convection,  and  radiation. 


162  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

C.  Expansion  of  solids,  coefficient  of  linear  expansion. 
Expansion  of  liquids,  anomalous  expansion  of  water. 
Expansion  of  gases,  Law  of  Charles,  absolute  zero. 

D.  Change  of  state. 
Fusion,  the  melting-point. 
Vaporization,  boiling,  evaporation. 

E.  Measurement  of  heat,  latent  and  specific  heat. 

F.  Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat. 

IV.  SOUND. 

A.  Nature  and  origin  of  sound. 

B.  Pitch,  loudness,  quality. 

C.  Velocity. 

D.  Reflection  of  sound,  echoes. 

E.  Resonance. 

V.  LIGHT. 

A.  Definitions: 

Light,  luminous  bodies,  illuminated  bodies,  transpar- 
ent, translucent,  and  opaque  bodies. 

B.  Rectilinear  propagation  of  light  in  a  homogeneous 

medium,  shadows,  pinhole  camera. 

C.  Photometry. 

Intensity  of  light  (source)  and  intensity  of  illujaina- 

tion  distinguished. 
Law  of  inverse  squares. 

D.  Reflection. 

Law  of  reflection.    Regular  and  diffused  reflection. 
Plane  and  spherical  mirrors,  position  and  character  of 
images. 

E.  Refraction. 

Laws  of  refraction  (qualitative). 

Refraction  by  plates,  prisms,  and  lenses. 

Lenses:  Converging  and  diverging,  conjugate  foci, 
principal  focus,  principal  axis. 

Position  and  character  of  real  and  virtual  images 
formed  by  converging  lenses. 

Dispersion,  color,  and  the  spectrum. 

Applications:  The  camera,  the  human  eye,  the  com- 
pound microscope,  the  telescope. 


PHYSICS  163 

VI.  MAGNETISM. 

A.  Magnets,  permanent  and  temporary. 

B.  Polarity,  magnetic  attraction  and  repulsion. 

C.  Magnetic  induction,  magnetic  field  and  lines  of  force, 

permeability. 

D.  The  earth  as  a  magnet,  compass,  declination,  dip. 

VII.  STATIC  ELECTRICITY. 

A.  Electrification  by  friction;  two  kinds  of. 

B.  Electrical  attraction  and  repulsion;  electroscopes. 

C.  Conductors  and  insulators;    electrification  by  induc- 

tion. 

D.  Condensers. 

VIII.  CURRENT  ELECTRICITY. 

A.  Simple  voltaic  cell. 
Electro-chemical  action. 

Local  action  and  polarization;  prevention  of  polariza- 
tion. 

B.  Types  of  cells  (Daniell,  Leclanche'). 

C.  Electrolysis. 
The  ampere. 

Electrolysis  of  water,  electro-deposition  of  metals. 
Storage  cell. 

D.  Electro-magnetism. 
Magnetic  field  around  a  current. 

Relation  between  direction  of  current  and  lines  of 

magnetic  force. 

Electro-magnets,  ampere  turns  (qualitative). 
The  electric  bell  and  the  telegraph. 

E.  Resistance. 
The  ohm. 
Ohm's  Law. 
The  volt. 

Power: — the  watt  and  watt  hour. 

F.  Heating  effects. 

Fuse  wire  and  electric  heater. 
Arc  and  incandescent  lamps. 

G.  Measuring  instruments;  galvanometer,  ammeter,  volt- 

meter, resistance  box. 


164  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

H.    Series  and  parallel  connection  of  cells,  lamps,  etc. 
I.     Fall  of  potential  in  a  circuit. 
J.     Electro-magnetic  induction. 

Direction  and  magnitude  of  the  induced  electromotive 

force. 

Simple  two-pole  dynamo  and  motor. 
Simple  alternating  and  direct  current  generator. 
Transformer,  induction  coil,  telephone. 

LIST    OF    EXPERIMENTS 

MECHANICS. 

1.  Weight  of  unit  volume  of  a  substance,  prism  or  cylinder. 

2.  Principle  of  Archimedes. 

3.  Specific  gravity  of  a  solid  body  that  will  sink  in  water. 

4.  Specific  gravity  of  a  liquid;    two  methods  (bottle  and  dis- 

placement methods). 
Or, 

5.  Specific  gravity  of  a  liquid  by  balancing  columns. 

6.  Boyle's  Law. 

7.  Density  of  air. 

8.  Hooke's  Law. 

9.  Strength  of  materials. 

10.  The  straight  lever,  principle  of  moments. 

11.  Centre  of  gravity  and  weight  of  a  lever. 

12.  Parallelogram  of  forces. 

13.  Four  forces  at  right  angles  in  one  plane. 

14.  Coefficient  of  friction  between  solid  bodies — on  a  level  and 

by  sliding  on  an  incline. 

15.  Efficiency  test  of  some  elementary  machine,  either  pulley, 

inclined  plane,  or  wheel  and  axle. 

1 6.  Laws  of  the  pendulum. 

17.  Laws  of  accelerated  motion. 

HEAT. 

18.  The  mercury  thermometer:     Relation  between  pressure  of 

steam  and  its  temperature. 

19.  Linear  expansion  of  a  solid. 

ao.     Increase  of  pressure  of  a  gas  heated  at  constant  volume. 

Or, 
21.     Increase  of  volume  of  a  gas  heated  at  constant  pressure. 


PHYSICS  165 

22.  Heat  of  fusion  of  ice. 

23.  Cooling  curve  through  change  of  state  (during  solidification). 

24.  Heat  of  vaporization  of  water. 

25.  Determination  of  the  dew  point. 

26.  Specific  heat  of  a  solid. 

SOUND. 

27.  Velocity  of  sound. 

28.  Wave  length  of  sound. 

29.  Number  of  vibrations  of  a  tuning  fork. 

LIGHT. 

30.  Use  of  photometer. 

31.  Images  in  a  plane  mirror. 

32.  Images  formed  by  a  convex  mirror. 

33.  Images  formed  by  a  concave  mirror. 

34.  Index  of  refraction  of  glass; 
Or, 

35.  Index  of  refraction  of  water. 

36.  Focal  length  and  conjugate  foci  of  a  converging  lens. 

37.  Shape  and  size  of  a  real  image  formed  by  a  lens. 

38.  Magnifying  power  of  a  lens. 

39.  Construction  of  model  of  telescope  or  compound  microscope. 

MAGNETISM  AND  ELECTRICITY. 

40.  Study  of  magnetic  field. 

41.  Magnetic  induction. 

42.  Study  of  a  single  fluid  voltaic  cell. 

43.  Study  of  a  two-fluid  voltaic  cell. 

44.  Magnetic  effect  of  an  electric  current. 

45.  Electrolysis. 

46.  Laws  of  electrical  resistance  of  wires:  Various  lengths  cross 

section  and  in  parallel. 

47.  Resistance  measured  by  volt-ammeter  method. 

48.  Resistance  measured  by  Wheatstone's  bridge. 

49.  Battery  resistance — combination  of  cells. 

50.  Study  of  induced  currents. 

51.  Power  or  efficiency  test  of  a  small  electric  motor. 

Chief  Aim  of  Instruction. — In  any  community  the  con- 
stant and  vigorous  effort  on  the  part  of  the  instructor 


166  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

should  be  to  relate  the  science  directly  to  the  life  of  the 
pupil,  not  only  to  that  part  earlier  than  his  high  school 
career,  but  to  his  life  of  after  years  as  well.  The  plan  of 
bringing  forcibly  to  the  pupil's  mind  numerous  practical 
and  interesting  applications  of  the  laws  and  principles  of 
physics,  in  order  that  his  interest  in  the  work  may  be 
maintained  and  that  he  may  be  able  to  make  the  best  use 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  course  in  later  years,  is  one  of 
utmost  importance,  one  that  is  quite  generally  appreci- 
ated if  we  may  judge  by  the  unanimity  of  the  opinions 
expressed  in  the  numerous  discussions  on  the  teaching  of 
physics.  These  illustrations,  naturally,  should  be  drawn 
from  the  interesting  features  of  the  locality.  When  prop- 
erly used,  no  device  of  teaching  can  be  found  more  potent 
than  this  to  give  a  due  appreciation  of  the  importance  of 
physics. 

Development  of  Subject. — Another  feature  of  the  class 
work,  which  has  great  possibilities  in  awakening  and  sus- 
taining the  interest  of  our  pupils,  one  of  undoubted  edu- 
cational value  is  the  tracing  of  the  development  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  subject,  attention  to  be  given  to  the 
trend  of  present  growth  as  well  as  to  the  more  evident 
development  in  the  past.  Were  we  able  to  state  at  this 
time  that  all  of  the  discussions  contained  in  a  modern 
text-book  on  physics  are  on  such  firm  foundations  as 
would  allow  them  to  be  designated  as  laws  and  principles, 
probably  one  of  the  chiefest  claims  of  the  science  to  the 
interest  of  its  students  would  be  withdrawn.  Much  as 
we  admire  the  rigor  and  solidity  of  those  parts  of  the 
science  which  have  grown  into  well-established  laws,  with 
none  the  less  interest  do  we  watch  its  growth  as  a  whole, 
frequently  to  find  that  newer  and  weaker  members  are 
adding  their  growth  to  that  of  the  parent  stock,  increasing 


PHYSICS  167 

thereby  its  strength  and  value.  The  fact  that  it  is  found 
necessary  for  the  proper  growth  of  a  science  to  lop  off, 
from  time  to  time,  some  of  these  minor  branches,  because 
they  cannot  attain  the  strength  and  solidity  of  natural 
laws,  argues  nothing  against  their  right  to  recognition,  as 
well  as  to  existence,  while  weak.  Did  not  the  very  laws 
and  principles  upon  which  we  now  so  thoroughly  rely  take 
their  start  as  weak  and  timid  extensions  from  the  main 
stock?  And  did  not  the  other  tentative  branches,  even 
though  they  were  compelled  to  fall  in  the  course  of  time, 
add  something  of  strength  while  they  existed  ? 

The  interest  which  is  stimulated  in  us  by  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  fact  that  the  science  is  a  growing  organism  is 
too  vital  and  too  valuable  to  be  set  lightly  aside;  the 
effect,  which  such  interest  can  have  on  the  attitude  of  our 
pupils  toward  physics,  is  too  important  to  be  neglected. 
A  very  appreciable  part  of  the  enthusiasm,  which  one 
accumulates  as  he  works  his  way  through  a  science,  is  got 
from  forward  glimpses  toward  the  direction  of  its  growth. 
And  is  there  not  an  equal  advantage  in  keeping  constantly 
in  mind  the  process  by  which  this  or  that  great  truth  has 
been  developed  ? — in  seeing  how,  as  in  the  past  the  science 
grew,  one  after  another  of  its  branches  was  added  and 
strengthened?  How  much  more  do  the  laws  of  falling 
bodies  mean  to  all  of  us  after  we  learn  what  methods  were 
used,  and  what  difficulties  overcome,  by  Galileo.  The 
laws  of  uniformly  accelerated  motion,  to  use  them  again 
to  make  this  point  clear,  furnish  an  excellent  example  of 
the  generalizing  which  it  is  the  function  of  physics  to 
stimulate.  In  their  elementary  form  they  present  a  front 
of  logic  and  of  definition  altogether  admirable,  even  if 
our  admiration  is  accompanied  by  little  warmth  of  feel- 
ing; but  the  accompaniment  of  enthusiasm  easily  follows 


168  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

on  our  part,  and  on  the  part  of  our  students,  after  we  have 
read  such  an  account  of  Galileo's  researches  as  is  given, 
for  instance,  in  abbreviated  form  in  Mach's  "Mechanics." 

Criticism  of  Present  Course  Ill-Founded. — The  fear,  ex- 
pressed again  and  again  in  numerous  discussions  on  the 
teaching  of  physics  in  our  high  schools,  that  the  course, 
as  it  is  now  generally  denned,  is  not  accomplishing  the 
ends  desirable  for  the  general  pupil,  but  is  designed  rather 
to  fulfil  the  requirements  for  college  and  university  en- 
trance, seems  to  me  to  be  ill-founded.  Any  lack  of  ac- 
complishment— and  we  are  all  compelled  to  admit  this 
deficiency  for  some  schools — would  seem  to  be  due  to  an 
improper  handling  of  the  course  rather  than  to  poor  de- 
sign in  the  content.  That  in  some  schools  the  laboratory 
work  is  so  conducted  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  a  "  starva- 
tion course  in  measurements"  argues  not  so  much  against 
the  definition  of  the  laboratory  feature  of  the  course  as 
against  the  conception,  of  the  teachers  of  these  schools, 
of  the  real  educational  significance  of  the  laboratory 
function. 

There  is  no  reason  for  the  use  of  apparatus  so  complex 
and  so  delicate,  and  at  the  same  time  so  difficult  of  manage- 
ment, .that  the  student  must  be  more  concerned  with  its 
manipulation  than  with  the  physical  interpretation  of  the 
experiment.  The  use  of  a  good  grade  of  spring  balance 
for  the  determination  of  the  specific  gravity  of  chunks  of 
metal,  or  of  a  stone,  would  be  preferable  to  the  far  more 
expensive  equipment  for  this  experiment  in  many  schools. 
In  no  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  school  is  there  better 
chance  for  good  judgment  than  in  the  choice  of  appara- 
tus for  its  science  laboratories.  For  any  experiment  that 
apparatus  is  best  which  has  the  simplest  design  and  great- 
est ease  of  manipulation.  That  method  of  experimenting 


PHYSICS  169 

is  always  best  which  flies  in  a  simple  line  straight  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  result  aimed  at. 

A  second  advantage  in  the  choice  of  simple  apparatus 
lies  in  the  ease  of  equipping  these  schools  which  have  in- 
adequate resources  for  their  laboratories.  I  am  not  mak- 
ing, by  these  statements,  an  excuse  for  cheap  or  shoddy 
apparatus.  By  all  means,  the  equipment  of  our  labora- 
tories should  be  good,  substantial,  and  trustworthy — such 
as  will  command  the  respect  of  our  pupils — but  elaborate 
and  delicate  of  manipulation  it  ought  not  to  be.  I  should 
like,  in  this  connection,  to  make  a  plea  for  such  equip- 
ment as  will  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  pupil  quantities 
really  appreciable  to  the  senses — for  the  use  in  the  labora- 
tory of  masses  of  several  hundred  grams,  or  of  a  pound  or 
two,  instead  of  five  or  ten  grams — for  the  statement  of 
problems  in  the  class  room,  for  all  that,  in  terms  of  rea- 
sonable quantities  instead  of  in  terms  of  such  insignificant 
masses  and  forces  as  would  keep  the  pupil  from  seeing 
the  true  relationship  of  the  magnitudes  involved. 

The  further  claim  that  the  use  of  algebra  and  geometry, 
to  express  the  quantitative  relations  handled  in  the  class 
room  or  in  the  laboratory,  serves  only  to  confuse  the 
progress  of  the  pupils,  and  that  they  use  their  mathe- 
matics merely  as  a  tool  for  the  obtaining  of  certain  results 
which  would  be  reached  better  by  reasoning,  is  one  fre- 
quently advanced.  There  is,  indeed,  some  ground  for 
the  fear  that  pupils  will  accept  a  mere  symbol  with  which 
to  work  rather  than  the  definite  physical  concept  for 
which  it  stands;  but  the  function  of  a  physics  teacher  is 
to  see  that  proper  physical  concepts  shall  be  formed. 
With  this  accomplished,  the  distance  which  the  pupil  can 
go  in  the  science,  in  a  given  time  and  with  a  given  amount 
of  energy,  with  the  aid  of  his  algebra  and  geometry,  is 


170  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

far  beyond  his  reach  without  this  aid.  The  instructor 
should  keep  in  mind  always  the  fact  that  the  mathemat- 
ical part  of  physics  is  a  device  for  the  economy  of  energy 
rather  than  an  end  in  itself.  No  better  field  than  physics 
can  be  found  for  the  concrete  application  of  the  simple 
processes  of  high  school  algebra  and  geometry.  The 
trouble  under  discussion  does  exist — I  have  met  the  re- 
sults often  enough — but  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  lies 
in  strengthening  the  course  by  the  use  of  better  text-books 
and  by  better  training  of  our  teachers,  rather  than  in  the 
further  weakening  of  the  course  through  dilution  of  its 
content. 

It  would  be  only  fair  to  indicate  here  that  such  criti- 
cisms of  the  present  (common)  physics  course  as  I  have 
noticed  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  do  lead  in  many 
cases  to  suggestions  of  excellent  changes  in  the  conduct 
and  content  of  the  course.  I  cannot  do  this  in  any  better 
way  than  to  incorporate  in  this  discussion  a  short  article 
on  the  physics  unit  which  appears  in  the  1911  Bulletin 
for  High  Schools  issued  from  the  office  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Schools  of  Kansas.  The  article  was 
written  by  Professor  C.  R.  Mann,  of  the  University  of 
Chicago. 

"Physics,  as  a  subject  for  high  school  instruction,  has  a 
double  advantage. /It  is  not  only  so  intimately  related  to 
the  pupils'  daily  lives  that  they  already  possess  a  large 
range  of  concrete  experience  on  which  to  base  their 
work,  but  it  also  is  essentially  a  science  of  measurement 
capable  of  training  the  pupils  in  quantitative  thinking  and 
in  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  definite,  quantitative 
knowledge. ;,  It  is  both  concrete  and  abstract — practical 
and  theoretical.  It  therefore  offers  unlimited  opportuni- 
ties of  training  pupils  in  the  methods  of  thinking  by  which 


PHYSICS  171 

all  real  knowledge  is  obtained;  and,  conversely,  of  giving 
them  greater  control  of  their  physical  environment  by 
teaching  them  how  to  apply  the  knowledge  thus  acquired 
to  the  world  of  practical  affairs  in  which  they  must  live. 

"In  order  that  physics  may  realize  the  two  distinctive 
ends  just  mentioned,  it  is  essential  that  the  pupils  gain 
clear  ideas  of  the  meanings  of  the  terms  used  as  well  as 
of  the  laws  and  principles  developed.  But  the  clearness 
with  which  a  given  idea  or  principle  is  grasped  is  usu- 
ally proportional  to  the  number  of  familiar  experiences 
which  are  associated  with  that  idea  or  principle;  and, 
conversely,  the  association  of  a  large  number  of  familiar 
experiences  with  an  idea  or  a  principle  renders  the  appli- 
cation of  that  idea  or  principle  to  daily  experiences  much 
easier  and  more  certain.  Therefore,  in  teaching  a  physi- 
cal principle,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  introduce  it  and  demon- 
strate it  with  a  piece  of  unfamiliar  apparatus  on  the  lect- 
ure table  or  in  the  laboratory.  If  only  this  is  done,  the 
pupil  will  be  left  in  the  mental  condition  of  the  French- 
man* whose  only  idea  associated  with  the  notion  of  specific 
gravity  was  two  copper  cylinders,  one  of  which  fitted  in- 
side the  other. 

"Successful  teaching  of  physics  requires  both  class  work 
and  laboratory  work.  These  two  kinds  of  work  must 
supplement  each  other  and  the  topics  treated  should  be 
as  far  as  is  possible  the  same  in  both.  Without  the  actual 
performing  of  experiments  in  class  and  laboratory,  the 
text-book  is  almost  meaningless,  and  is  soon  forgotten. 

"It  is  generally  better  to  introduce  a  topic  by  means 
of  informal  discussion  with  the  class  concerning  familiar 
experiences.  For  example,  if  the  topic  is  specific  grav- 
ity, the  knowledge  already  in  the  possession  of  the  class 
should  first  be  called  forth  by  means  of  questions  con- 


172  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

cerning  their  experiences  with  floating  and  sinking  of 
such  familiar  things  as  their  own  bodies,  chips,  corks, 
logs,  cream,  ice,  stones,  nails,  lead  keels,  fishing  sinkers, 
etc. 

"  When  the  principle  or  idea  under  discussion  has  been 
brought  out  by  such  discussion,  it  should  be  defined  or 
demonstrated  by  one  or  more  experiments,  and  then  fixed 
by  requiring  the  solution  of  a  number  of  simple,  real, 
concrete  problems.  If  the  class  work  has  been  skilfully 
conducted,  a  number  of  problems  or  disputes  will  have 
arisen  of  a  sort  that  can  be  settled  only  by  making  experi- 
ments and  measurements. 

"  The  laboratory  is  the  place  in  which  to  settle  such 
problems  and  disputes.  In  the  ideal  case,  the  results  of 
each  laboratory  experiment  will  solve  some  problem  or 
settle  some  dispute,  and  the  more  concrete  and  signifi- 
cant the  problem  or  the  dispute,  the  greater  the  value 
of  the  work.  For  example,  the  pupils  will  probably  get 
much  more  valuable  training  from  the  laboratory  work 
in  specific  gravity  if  they  be  shown  first  a  rectangular 
block  of  oak  and  be  asked  who  can  predict  how  high  it  will 
float  out  of  water,  than  if  the  experiment  is  presented  in 
the  usual  way,  namely,  'Find  the  specific  gravity  of  a 
rectangular  solid  body  lighter  than  water.'  In  the  first 
case  a  problem  is  presented,  measurement  is  required 
for  its  solution,  and  the  competitive  sense  is  appealed  to; 
in  the  second  case  there  is  no  problem  that  has  any  sig- 
nificance to  the  pupils. 

"When  the  laboratory  is  used  as  a  court  of  appeal  where 
disputed  points  can  be  settled,  the  work  there  helps  to 
fix  in  mind  and  to  clarify  principles  besides  giving  dis- 
cipline in  scientific  thinking;  but  when  it  is  used  merely 
to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  heavier  than 


PHYSICS  173 

water,  or  that  of  a  body  lighter  than  water  with  a  sinker, 
or  of  a  liquid  with  a  pyknometer,  or  of  a  liquid  by  Hare's 
method,  etc.,  the  work  tends  to  give  training  in  little 
beside  the  technique  of  the  physicist.  The  work  of  the 
high  school  is  to  educate  boys  and  girls,  not  to  train  re- 
search physicists. 

"Since  the  laboratory  is  the  place  to  solve  problems  that 
cannot  be  solved  without  experiment  and  measurement, 
the  most  fruitful  type  of  experiment  is  the  one  whose  re- 
sult is  not  known  in  advance.  The  attempt  to  determine 
physical  constants  whose  values  are  known  with  far 
greater  accuracy  than  it  is  possible  to  hope  for  in  an 
elementary  laboratory  is,  to  say  the  least,  discouraging. 
Thus,  the  theoretical  mechanical  advantage  of  an  in- 
clined plane  or  of  a  set  of  pulleys  is  known  in  advance; 
but  the  actual  efficiency  of  a  given  plane  or  pulley  is  not 
known,  but  depends  on  how  the  machines  are  handled. 
If  the  student  is  asked,  What  is  the  greatest  efficiency 
of  this  inclined  plane?  Is  it  greater  with  large  load  or 
with  small  load?  he  will  probably  get  far  more  real 
training  from  his  work  than  he  will  if  asked  to  '  verify  the 
law  of  the  inclined  plane.'  In  the  former  case  he  has  a 
problem  to  solve,  and  the  solution  depends  on  what  he  is 
able  to  make  the  plane  do;  in  the  latter  case  he  has  to 
make  his  results  tally  with  the  theory. 

"Other  similar  problems  that  lead  to  significant  and 
valuable  laboratory  work  are:  What  is  the  maximum 
efficiency  of  a  small  water  motor?  Which  kind  of  gas 
burner  is  most  efficient  on  cook  stoves?  Which  boy's 
electric  motor  is  most  efficient?  How  much  more  effi- 
cient is  a  tungsten  lamp  than  a  carbon  lamp?  What 
kind  of  a  lens  shall  I  get  for  a  camera  for  making  picture* 
for  lantern  slides? 


174  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

"  Probably  the  most  difficult  task  that  confronts  the 
physics  teacher  in  the  small  high  school  is  to  start  the 
equipment  of  a  laboratory  on  small  means.  The  first 
maxim  is,  buy  for  use  and  not  for  show.  Buy  the  less 
expensive  first.  Get  the  necessities  before  the  luxuries. 
Do  not  begin  by  the  purchase  of  Geisler  tubes  and  X-ray 
apparatus.  Also,  do  not  forget  that  the  members  of  the 
class  probably  possess  boats,  motors,  engines,  telegraph 
outfits,  and  many  other  similar  things  which  they  are 
not  only  willing  but  eager  to  bring  to  class  and  explain. 
The  local  industries,  shops,  and  factories  also  offer  rich 
opportunity  for  making  the  work  vital  and  significant. 

"  In  offering  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  equipment  of  a 
laboratory,  let  us  begin  with  the  room  itself.  This  should 
be  dry,  well  lighted,  and,  if  possible,  with  south  exposure. 

"The  room  should  be  provided  with  heavy,  flat-topped 
tables,  about  thirty-two  inches  high.  The  length  and 
breadth  of  these  must  often  be  adapted  to  the  shape  of 
the  room,  but,  when  possible,  tables  three  feet  wide  and 
eight  feet  long  will  be  found  very  convenient.  These 
tables  should  have  no  iron  in  their  construction,  if  pos- 
sible, and  the  top  should  project  at  least  three  inches. 
Any  good  carpenter  can  make  these  tables. 

"If  there  is  a  good  water  system  in  the  building  the  labo- 
ratory should  be  provided  with  a  sink.  If  not,  a  wooden 
tank  a  foot  deep,  two  feet  wide,  and  three  feet  long,  lined 
with  lead  or  galvanized  iron,  will  be  found  convenient. 
If  the  laboratory  can  be  supplied  with  gas,  the  fixtures 
should  hang  from  the  ceiling  directly  over  the  tables  and 
about  four  feet  above  them.  Connections  can  then  be 
made  with  Bunsen  burners  by  the  use  of  rubber  tubing. 
If  no  gas  can  be  provided,  gasolene  torches  handled  with 
care  are  the  best  substitute. 


PHYSICS  175 

"Cases  for  storing  apparatus  should  be  about  four- 
teen inches  deep,  with  movable  shelves  and  glass  fronts. 
They  should  be  self-locking,  and  all  open  with  the  same 
key.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  hard-rubber  apparatus  should 
be  stored  in  a  dark  place.  A  class  in  physics  consumes 
at  best  more  of  the  teacher's  time  than  one  in  most  other 
branches.  Everything  about  the  laboratory  should  be 
arranged  to  facilitate  the  getting  out  and  putting  away  of 
apparatus.  Then  the  teacher  should  be  expected  and 
required  to  see  that  all  tools  and  apparatus  be  locked  up 
when  not  in  use. 

"A  few  tools  for  making  and  repairing  apparatus  are  an 
essential  part  of  a  laboratory  equipment.  There  should 
be  at  least  a  small  carpenter's  work-bench  and  the  fol- 
lowing tools:  Vise,  fine-toothed  saw,  small  plane,  brace, 
drills,  screw-drivers,  pliers,  files,  small  claw-hammer, 
tinner's  snips,  small  soldering-iron,  hack-saw. 

"Experience  has  taught  us  that  the  average  teacher  of 
physics  is  liable  to  err  in  requiring  the  class  to  study  too 
many  topics  and  do  too  many  experiments.  The  result 
of  such  an  error  is  that  the  pupils  become  confused  and 
also  acquire  careless  habits  in  the  use  of  apparatus  and 
the  making  of  measurements.  They  are  apt  to  get  the 
habit  of  being  satisfied  with  hurried  and  slovenly  work. 
It  would  be  far  better  for  the  teacher  to  select  half  the 
number  of  experiments,  and  to  see  to  it  that  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  performs  each  experiment  individually, 
and  preserves  a  description  of  his  work  and  its  results 
in  neat,  orderly,  readable  form. 

"The  following  list  of  topics  was  prepared  by  a  com- 
mittee of  physics  teachers  of  the  North  Central  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  It  contains  the 
subject-matter  which  all  teachers  agree  is  desirable  for  a 


176  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

first  course  in  physics.  A  pupil  who  has  learned  this  ma- 
terial well  has  done  a  good  year's  work  in  physics.  It 
is,  however,  possible  to  increase  the  number  of  topics 
without  leading  to  superficial  work.  Those  with  stars 
opposite  them  are  the  ones  best  adapted  to  furnish  lab- 
oratory problems.  (See  the  definition  of  the  physics  unit 
quoted  earlier  in  the  chapter.) 

"The  following  list  of  laboratory  problems  are  sug- 
gested as  suitable  ones  to  accompany  the  topics  in  the 
syllabus.  Each  student  should  do  at  least  thirty  experi- 
ments of  this  type: 

1.  How  find  the  centre  of  gravity  of  an  irregularly  shaped  piece 
of  card-board  or  sheet  metal?     How  prove  that  the  point  found  is 
the  centre  of  gravity? 

Irregularly  shaped  card  or  sheet  metal. 
Plumb  line. 

2.  Which  requires  the  stronger  foundation,  a  brick  wall  or  a  con- 
crete wall  of  the  same  dimensions? 

Brick,  block  of  concrete. 
Spring  balance,  meter  stick. 

Which  weighs  most,  a  wooden  bridge  containing  500  cubic  feet 
of  spruce  or  an  iron  bridge  containing  100  cubic  feet  of  iron  ? 
Block  of  spruce,  block  of  iron. 
Spring  balance,  meter  stick. 

3.  What  is  the  tension  on  a  tie  rod  that  supports  an  electric  arc 
lamp  that  weighs  70  pounds? 

Spring  balance,  wooden  stick,  string,  weights. 

4.  A  colt  can  pull  half  as  hard  as  a  horse.     How  arrange  a 
whiffletree  so  that  the  two  can  be  hitched  to  a  wagon  and  each  get 
his  share  of  the  load? 

Two  spring  balances,  meter  stick,  string. 

5.  Do  gas  meters  measure  gas  at  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
or  at  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  mains?    Which  method  would 
give  the  consumer  the  most  gas  for  his  money?    How  much  more? 

Water  manometer  to  measure  gas  pressure,  Boyle's  law 
tube  to  measure  change  in  volume  with  change  in  press- 
ure, two  large  iron  pails  to  measure  gas,  school  gas  meter 


PHYSICS  177 

6.  Given  the  diameter  of  the  gasometer  of  the  local  gas  works, 
measure  the  gas  pressure  and  compute  the  weight  of  the  iron  top  of 
the  gasometer.     What  difference  in  level  hi  the  water  level  inside 
and  out  of  the  gasometer?     Construct  model  and  verify  conclusions. 
Compute  volume  of  water  displaced  and  get  weight  of  gasometer 
top  and  confined  gas. 

7.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  pine  are  required  to  float  a  loo-pound 
boy  entirely  out  of  water? 

Block  of  pine,  meter  stick,  spring  balance. 

8.  Five  cubic  feet  of  lead  are  used  in  the  keel  of  a  boat.    How 
much  does  the  lead  weigh  out  of  water?    How  much  does  it  weigh 
under  water  ?    Would  it  sink  the  boat  as  far  when  it  is  fastened  to 
the  keel  under  water  as  it  would  when  placed  in  the  boat? 

Chunk  of  lead,  spring  balance,  jar  of  water. 

9.  Does  it  take  more  work  to  slide  a  cake  of  ice  up  an  inclined 
plane  than  to  lift  it  vertically  to  the  top  of  the  plane?     If  so,  how 
much  more?    What  is  the  maximum  efficiency  of  the  inclined  plane 
in  the  laboratory? 

Inclined  plane,  glass  plate  to  cover  its  top,  car,  spring 
balance  or  set  of  weights. 

10.  Is  more  work  required  to  pull  a  safe  up  to  the  third  floor 
with  a  set  of  pulleys  than  to  carry  it  up  by  hand?     What  is  the 
maximum  efficiency  of  the  pulleys  in  the  laboratory? 

Pulleys,  load  to  represent  the  safe,  spring  balance  or  set  of 
weights. 

11.  Repeat  10,  using  the  wheel  and  axle. 

12.  Does  it  require  more  work  to  lift  a  stone  with  a  crowbar  or 
to  raise  it  directly  by  hand  through  the  same  height? 

Lever,  spring  balances  or  set  of  weights. 
Is  the  efficiency  of  the  lever  ever  greater  than  i?   If  so, 
why? 

13.  How  much  ice  is  needed  to  cool  a  gallon  of  water  at  30°  C. 

t02°C? 

Calorimeter,  ice,  thermometer. 

14.  How  much  ice  is  melted  in  a  refrigerator  when  an  aluminium 
kettle  at  a  temperature  of  30°  C.  and  which  weighs  i  pound  is  placed 
in  the  refrigerator  and  cooled  to  2°  C.  ? 

Aluminium  chips,  calorimeter,  thermometer. 


178  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

15.  Which  gas  burner  is  more  efficient,  a  Bunsen  burner  or  a  gas- 
stove  burner? 

Bunsen  burner,  gas-stove  burner,  kettle  of  water,  ther- 
mometer. Time  rise  in  temperature  of  given  amount 
of  water.  Note  gas  consumption  on  meter,  or  use  Thorp 
gauge. 

16.  On  a  given  burner,  which  kettle  is  most  efficient? 

Several  kettles,  thermometer.  Note  time  required  to  heat 
given  amount  of  water  a  given  number  of  degrees. 

17.  In  an  open  kettle  of  water  that  takes  15  minutes  to  come 
to  a  boil,  how  much  water  will  boil  away  if  the  kettle  boils  for  5 
minutes? 

Try  it  and  compute  the  heat  of  vaporization,  or  measure 
the  latter  and  compute  it,  testing  the  conclusion. 

1 8.  What  is  the  temperature  at  which  dew  forms  to-day? 

Dew  point  hygrometer. 

19.  Which  makes  the  best  lining  for  a  fireless  cooker,  an  air 
space,  felt,  excelsior,  mineral  wool,  etc.  ?    Are  any  of  them  as  good 
as  a  "thermos"  bottle? 

Thermometer  and  materials  to  make  different  cookers. 

20.  How  is  a  siren  whistle  constructed  and  why  does  it  produce 
the  peculiar  effect? 

21.  How  long  are  the  waves  of  sound  from  your  own  voice? 

Tune  voice  to  organ  pipe  or  other  air  column. 

22.  Can  you  make  a  photograph  without  a  lens? 

Pinhole  camera. 

23.  Why  is  the  image  in  a  plane  mirror  reversed? 

Make  diagram  by  sighting  images  of  pins. 

24.  What  makes  the  "cow's  hoof"  in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  of 
water  when  it  is  placed  below  and  to  one  side  of  a  candle? 

25.  How  do  luxifer  prisms  or  holophane  shades  send  light  into 
dark  corners  and  help  light  up  dark  rooms?    Why  is  there  no  color 
in  the  light  transmitted  by  them? 

Trace  light  through  prism. 

26.  Do  different  sized  cameras  when  pointed  from  a  given  place 
at  the  same  object  all  give  images  of  the  same  size?     Is  there  any 
relation  between  the  size  of  the  image  and  the  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  lens  to  the  ground  glass? 

Several  lenses  of  different  focal  lengths,  meter  stick. 


PHYSICS  179 

27.  At  a  given  distance  from  a  compass  needle,  in  what  position 
does  a  magnet  produce  the  greatest  deflection? 

Trace  lines  of  force  about  the  magnet  with  the  compass 
needle. 

28.  Which  form  of  voltaic-cell  is  best  for  door  bells?    Which 
for  telegraph  lines?    Which  for  toy  motors?    Test  them  and  find 
out  why. 

29.  Why  is  it  better  to  connect  house  electric  lamps  in  parallel? 

Try  them  both  in  series  and  in  parallel.     Measure  with 
voltmeter  and  ammeter. 

30.  Which  radiates  more  heat  per  watt-hour,  a  carbon  lamp  or 
a  tungsten  lamp? 

Calorimeter,  voltmeter,  ammeter. 

31.  Which  furnishes  the  most  light  per  watt-hour,  a  carbon  lamp 
or  a  tungsten  lamp? 

Voltmeter,  ammeter,  photometer. 

32.  What  makes  the  motor  go? 

St.  Louis  motor. 

33.  What  is  the  efficiency  of  a  small  motor? 

Voltmeter,  ammeter,  motor,  brake. 

34.  What  is  the  efficiency  of  the  dynamo  in  the  school  or  town  ? 

35.  What  is  the  efficiency  of  a  small  water  motor? 

36.  Which  kind  of  coal  for  sale  in  your  town  gives  the  greatest 
number  of  heat  units  per  pound?    Which  gives  the  greatest  number 
of  heat  units  per  dollar? 

37.  Is  the  heat  equivalent  of  the  city  gas  up  to  standard? 

38.  What  is  the  most  efficient  steam  engine  in  town?     (Express 
result  in  pounds  coal  per  H.  P.  H.) 

39.  Does  the  ventilating  plant  in  your  school  supply  the  requi- 
site amount  of  fresh  air  (3,000  cubic  feet  per  person  per  hour)  ? 

40.  How  much  coal  is  burned  per  day  at  your  school?    How 
much  of  the  heat  gets  used  up  in  heating  the  air?     How  much  of 
it  is  lost  up  the  chimney?    Could  the  heating  plant  be  improved? 
How?" 

In  what  has  just  been  said  about  the  adaptation  of  the 
physics  course,  as  generally  defined,  to  the  real  needs  of 
the  high  school  pupil  in  after  life,  the  constant  effort 
has  been  to  keep  in  mind  the  criticisms,  which  have  been 


180  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

made  so  freely  during  recent  years,  against  the  dictation 
of  colleges  and  universities  in  this  definition.  The  state- 
ments of  the  chapter  have  been  made  with  a  feeling  of 
greater  certainty  in  view  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  latest 
definitions  was  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  successful 
secondary  school  teachers,  and  in  view  of  the  further 
fact  that  their  definition  did  not  depart  essentially  from 
the  previous  ones.  The  real  test  of  the  value  of  a  physics 
course,  with  whatever  "definition"  it  may  be  in  accord, 
lies  in  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  apply  physical  principles 
in  the  solution  of  his  every-day  problems;  it  should  be 
the  constant  aim  of  the  instructor  to  train  this  power  of 
application.  The  one  great  danger  is  that  the  instructor 
may  yield  to  the  temptation,  laid  constantly  before  him 
by  some  text-books,  to  include  too  much  material  in  the 
year's  work.  Indeed  most  text-books  of  physics  would 
benefit  by  judicious  pruning.  Thoroughness,  above  all 
things,  is  of  value  in  physics  teaching. 

Future  of  Physics  in  the  Schools. — There  are  many 
teachers  of  science  in  America  who  believe  that  before 
many  years  pass  the  subject  of  physics  will  be  accorded 
an  important  position  in  the  education  of  our  children 
and  in  their  life  in  after-school  days — recognized  to  such 
an  extent,  indeed,  as  to  have  provided  for  it  a  more  ex- 
tended treatment  in  our  high  schools  than  now  is  allowed 
it.  When  this  change  comes,  a  short  course,  mainly  de- 
scriptive in  character,  shouTd  be  put  into  one  of  the  early 
years.  Such  would  serve  very  satisfactorily  as  a  fore- 
runner of  the  chemistry  of  the  curriculum,  as  well  as  of 
the  main  physics  course.  The  action  of  the  National 
Education  Association  recommends  that,  where  both 
chemistry  and  physics  are  taught,  physics  shall  be  given 
in  the  third  year  and  chemistry  in  the  fourth.  The  action 


PHYSICS  181 

represents  an  essential  agreement  with  a  minority  report 
of  its  "Committee  of  Ten,"  appointed  to  consider  the 
correlation  of  the  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 
The  committee  report  itself  favored  the  reversed  order. 
The  reason  expressed  for  the  minority  report  was  "that 
chemical  theory  so  completely  depends  upon  an  intelli- 
gent conception  of  its  relations  to  physical  laws  that  pre- 
vious training  in  the  latter  would  seem  indispensable." 
This  reason  may  be  sufficient  for  the  action  taken,  and 
undoubtedly  the  recommendation  will  be  followed  wher- 
ever a  situation  arises  calling  for  decision  on  the  point 
involved;  but  when  such  conditions,  as  are  expressed 
here,  do  not  exist,  the  place  for  physics  is  undoubtedly 
in  the  fourth  year.  Physics  needs  this  year  (from  the 
third  to  the  fourth)  of  mental  development,  and  it  needs 
the  aid  of  the  third  year  of  mathematics;  it  needs  these 
more  than  does  any  other  study  in  the  curriculum.  A 
good  solution  of  the  difficulty  would  be  provided  by  this 
elementary  first  course  in  physical  science. 

The  Training  of  Teachers. — From  the  discussion  of  this 
chapter  the  inference  is  that  considerable  stress  is  to  be 
placed  upon  the  training  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  upon 
his  native  ability  and  adaptation  to  the  science.  I  be- 
lieve that  the  solution  of  many  of  the  difficulties  which 
beset  the  teaching  of  physics  in  our  schools  lies  here. 
Moreover,  a  great  part  of  the  responsibility  for  whatever 
of  unsatisfactory  condition  exists  is  due  to  the  unsatis- 
factory method  by  which  the  physics  teachers  are  trained 
in  our  colleges  and  universities.  A  part  of  the  responsi- 
bility again  lies  at  the  doors  of  the  officials  of  the  school, 
who  seem  willing  in  many  localities  that  physics  should 
be  taught  by  a  teacher  with  no  other  training  in  the 
science  than  one  general  course  in  addition  to  the  ele- 


182  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

mentary  physics  itself.  When  these  officials  shall  re- 
quire as  high  standards  of  preparation  of  their  science 
teachers  as  they  now  do  of  their  language  teachers,  phys- 
ics will  make  a  long  step  forward  in  its  service  to  the  great 
mass  of  our  citizens. 

From  a  slightly  different  point  of  view,  attention  was 
called  to  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  historical 
development  of  the  science,  both  for  the  instructor  and 
for  the  pupil.  No  other  feature  of  science  training  is  so 
efficient  in  bringing  the  whole  subject  into  view  in  proper 
perspective. 

The  instructor,  further,  besides  being  interested  in  the 
past  development  of  physics,  should  be  in  touch  with  its 
present  and  future  development;  for  this  also  means 
a  more  efficient  guidance  of  the  pupil's  interests.  The 
growth  of  the  science  may  be  followed  best  by  keeping 
in  touch  with  the  experimenters  of  the  period;  for  by 
such  acquaintance  the  general  trend  of  growth  may  be 
seen.  An  abstracting  journal,  such  as  the  admirable 
Science  Abstracts  in  English,  is  almost  necessary  for 
this  purpose.  I  can  do  nothing  better  here  than  to  call 
the  reader's  attention  to  an  address  by  Nichols,1  before 
the  Physics  Club  of  New  York,  on  "Research  Work  for 
Physics  Teachers,"  a  paper  which,  even  in  short  abstract, 
is  admirably  suggestive  for  teachers. 

1  Nichols,  E.  L.,  Science,  13,  202;   1901  (abstract). 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CHEMISTRY 
J.  E.  MILLS,  PH.D. 

FORMERLY   ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    CHEMISTRY,    UNIVERSITY   OF 

NORTH  CAROLINA;  CONSULTING  CHEMIST,  COLUMBIA,  s.  c. 

Should  Chemistry  be  Taught  in  the  High  Schools? — 

The  knowledge  which  jits  a  child  best  for  life  is  that 
which  enables  him  best  to  understand  and  to  appreciate  his 
surroundings.  The  training  which  fits  a  child  best  for  life 
is  that  which  trains  him  best  to  see  truly,  to  think  clearly, 
and  to  apply  his  knowledge. 

What  is  chemistry?  In  what  way  does  chemistry 
touch  the  life  of  the  average  man  ?  Will  a  knowledge  of 
chemistry  prove  of  benefit  to  the  ordinary  laborer,  or 
farmer,  or  mechanic,  or  business  man?  Such  questions 
have  been  often  asked,  and  my  almost  invariable  reply 
to  the  questioner  is,  "Name  anything  about  you  with 
which  chemistry  has  nothing  to  do?"  It  makes  little 
difference  as  to  the  reply — cloth,  paper,  glass,  wood, 
brick,  the  body  itself,  the  food  that  we  eat,  and  the  earth 
upon  which  we  walk — chemistry  teaches  of  the  consti- 
tution of  these  bodies,  of  the  way  in  which  they  are  made. 
For  the  things  by  which  we  are  surrounded,  and  we  our- 
selves, are  made  up  in  a  wonderful  way  from  a  very  few 
simpler  bodies.  Just  as  brick  and  stone  and  wood  and 
mortar  can  be  used  to  make  a  city  full  of  houses  each 
different  from  the  other,  so  a  few  simpler  bodies  are  so 

183 


184  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

united  and  put  together  as  to  make  all  of  the  wonderful 
world  with  which  we  are  in  every-day  contact.  Surely, 
it  is  interesting  to  know  something  of  the  things  of  which 
this  wonderful  world  is  made,  and  something  of  the  way 
in  which  they  are  put  together,  and  something  of  the 
changes  which  they  undergo.  For  fire  does  not  destroy 
wood,  or  coal,  or  oil — it  merely  changes  them.  The  food 
we  eat  becomes  a  part  of  our  body.  Similarly,  trees  and 
plants  grow  because  they  absorb  the  necessary  food  from 
the  soil  and  from  the  air.  Some  knowledge  of  these  won- 
ders makes  life  broader  and  more  full  of  meaning  and  of 
pleasure.  Is  it  right  that  students  should  be  allowed  to 
pass  out  of  the  high  school  and  enter  upon  their  life's 
work  in  total  ignorance  of  the  structure  and  changes  of 
the  entire  world  about  them  ? 

Chemistry  in  the  high  schools  should  be  made  a  won- 
derfully interesting  study  and  a  study  that  would  con- 
tribute a  lasting  interest  to  life;  but  this  is  only  one  part 
of  the  story.  Each  man's  present  life,  as  he  lives  it  under 
the  conditions  of  our  modern  civilization,  has  been  made 
possible  only  by  the  knowledge  of  chemistry  which  the 
world  has  come  to  possess.  A  knowledge  of  chemistry 
has  made  possible  the  production  of  iron  from  its  ores, 
and  every  step  of  civilization  has  been  dependent  upon 
that  knowledge.  But  that  industry  is  only  one  of  a  hun- 
dred industries  dependent  upon  a  knowledge  of  chemistry 
for  their  existence  or  for  their  present  perfection.  The 
production  of  copper  and  silver  and  lead  and  tin  and  zinc 
from  their  ores,  and  the  winning  of  gold,  are  dependent 
upon  chemical  processes.  The  chemist  explains  how 
best  to  produce  brick,  and  cement,  and  mortar,  and  con- 
crete, for  the  purpose  in  view.  He  supervises  the  manu- 
facture of  glass,  of  paints,  and  of  dyestuffs.  He  is  a 


CHEMISTRY  185 

necessary  adjunct  to  the  sugar  refinery  and  of  the  soap 
factory.  Not  alone  for  the  material  of  the  printing-press, 
but  for  the  paper  and  the  ink  as  well,  a  debt  is  owing  to 
the  chemist.  He  aids  the  physician  with  his  drugs  and 
the  farmer  with  his  fertilizers.  To  his  care  is  largely  en- 
trusted the  carrying  out  of  the  pure-food  law  and  the  in- 
spection of  drinking  water.  The  above  are  only  exam- 
ples. Literally  in  a  hundred  ways  the  knowledge  of  the 
chemist  touches  the  home  life  of  nearly  every  man,  wom- 
an, and  child  in  the  United  States.  All  of  the  chemical 
processes  mentioned,  and  the  numerous  others,  can  be 
taught  in  no  high  school.  But  a  foundation  for  further 
reading  can  and  should  be  laid,  and  some  of  the  simpler, 
and  locally  more  important,  processes  should  be  taught. 

There  is  yet  another  side  to  the  story — the  knowledge 
of  chemistry  may  prove  directly  useful  in  the  home  or  in 
the  daily  life.  A  little  knowledge  of  chemistry  enables 
one  to  understand  far  better  than  is  otherwise  possible 
the  valuable  information  given  in  the  many  useful  bulle- 
tins, reports,  and  magazine  and  newspaper  articles  on 
such  subjects  as  health,  hygiene,  sanitation,  pure  and  im- 
pure foods,  pure  and  impure  paints,  patent  medicines, 
fertilizers,  scientific  farming,  insecticides,  disinfectants, 
wood  preservatives,  etc.  A  little  knowledge  of  these 
matters  is  often  the  means  of  saving  many  dollars. 
Sometimes,  too,  it  is  useful  to  know  how  to  remove  a 
stain,  or  to  remember  that  the  antidote  for  carbolic  acid 
is  alcohol. 

Specific  Mental  Disciplines  Involved. — So  far  only  those 
points  have  been  considered  which  belong  more  partic- 
ularly to  a  course  in  chemistry.  The  general  educative 
value  of  the  course  is  not  greatly  different  from  that  of  the 
other  science  courses.  Chemistry  is  not  a  "  memory  "  sub- 


186  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ject,  but  it  does  require  that  the  facts  learned  to-day  shall 
be  used,  not  forgotten,  to-morrow.  It  necessitates  at 
almost  every  step  reasoning  from  things  seen  to  things 
unseen,  and  from  particular  facts  to  general  laws.  It  cul- 
tivates the  scientific  use  of  the  imagination.  It  gives  the 
student  opportunity  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics, English,  and  drawing.  It  gives  him  skill  in  the 
use  of  apparatus  and  fits  him  for  further  similar  work 
later.  It  develops  accuracy,  self-dependence,  and  intel- 
lectual honesty.  It  furnishes  him  an  insight  into — nay, 
more,  it  even  introduces  him  personally  to  the  methods 
that  have  been  and  that  are  used  in  the  study  of  nature 
and  natural  laws.  It  encourages  his  innate  desire  to  ask 
questions  and  teaches  that  lesson  which  it  took  the  human 
race  many  centuries  to  learn — that  the  questions  must  be 
asked,  not  of  men,  nor  of  books,  but  of  the  things  them- 
selves. Surely,  there  comes  to  every  teacher  the  oppor- 
tunity, as  his  pupil  stands  face  to  face  with  some  won- 
derful law  of  nature,  to  inspire  the  feeling — "The  place 
whereon  thou  standest  is  holy  ground."  These  points 
are  left  without  further  emphasis  in  this  article  solely 
because  they  concern  science  generally  and  not  chemistry 
more  particularly.  Let  no  reader  underestimate  their 
importance. 

We  have  argued  that  chemistry  has  a  place  in  the  high- 
school  curriculum  because,  first,  it  teaches  of  the  consti- 
tution and  changes  of  the  world  about  us,  and  the  infor- 
mation adds  a  new  interest  to,  and  a  new  appreciation  of, 
life.  Because,  second,  the  advance  in  chemical  knowl- 
edge is  felt  in  a  hundred  ways  in  every  home  life  to-day. 
Because,  third,  chemistry  gives  much  specifically  useful 
information.  Because,  fourth,  chemistry,  if  properly 
taught,  is  one  of  the  best  imaginable  subjects  to  train  the 


CHEMISTRY 


187 


pupil  to  see  for  himself,  to  think  for  himself,  and  to  do 
for  himself. 

The  Past  and  Present  Status  of  Chemistry  in  the  High 
Schools. — It  should  be  clearly  recognized  that  the  study 
of  chemistry  in  the  high  schools  is  not  to-day  in  a  satis- 
factory condition.  Taking,  first,  a  glance  at  the  country 
as  a  whole  it  will  be  noted  from  the  table  below  that 
chemistry  has  lost  ground  during  the  last  twenty  years. 
This  loss  (shared  also  by  physics)  is  the  more  significant 

PER   CENT   OF  STUDENTS   STUDYING   CHEMISTRY 


1889-90 

l894~95 

1899-1900 

1904-05 

1909-10* 

Private  high  schools 
Public  high  schools. 
Total  

8-59 

IO.IO 

9.62 

9-79 
9-15 
9.31 

9-34 
7.72 
8.00 

8.80 
6.76 

7.OA 

9-38 
6.89 
7.12 

*  9.3?8  public  and  private  high  schools  reporting  817,653  students.  These  data  are 
from  information  furnished  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education. 

in  that  it  has  occurred  during  a  period  of  wonderful 
advance  in  the  applications  of  science  and  of  greatly  in- 
creased expenditure  for  high  school  equipment. 

In  considering  the  present  status  of  chemistry  in  the 
high  schools,  it  should  be  remembered  that  chemistry  is 
usually  taught  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  high  school  course 
and  that  probably  slightly  over  half  of  the  fourth  year 
students  do  study  chemistry.  Moreover,  something  of 
the  past  history  of  chemistry  as  a  science  should  be  borne 
in  mind.  As  a  science,  chemistry  commenced  its  exist- 
ence only  a  little  over  a  hundred  years  ago.  For  years 
there  were  no  laboratories  for  student  instruction.  The 
first  was  opened  by  Liebig  at  Giessen  in  1825.  After 
that  date  laboratory  instruction  in  universities  became 


188  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

increasingly  common,  but  chemistry  had  to  wait  for  years 
for  general  admission  into  the  school  curriculum.  Once 
admitted,  neither  in  prestige  nor  in  the  methods  .used  for 
instruction  could  it  rank  with  the  long  established  classics 
and  mathematics.  In  1888  Harvard  College,  for  the  first 
time,  included  chemistry  among  the  subjects  that  might 
be  offered  for  admission.  Since  that  time,  slowly  it  is 
true  as  was  to  be  expected,  chemistry  has  been  gradually 
accorded  a  place  among  the  subjects  admitting  to  en- 
trance credit  into  the  various  colleges  and  universities. 
Its  full  recognition  has  been  hastened  in  many  places  by 
the  unit  system  introduced  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation. 
Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Successful  Teaching  of  Chem- 
istry.— First  might  be  placed  the  past  history  of  the  sub- 
ject. Unsuccessful  methods  of  teaching  will  linger  after 
they  have  been  proved  failures.  The  four-year  high 
school  is  not  the  place  for  a  course  in  qualitative  analysis. 
Nor  is  the  high  school  the  place  for  studying  the  details 
of  the  numerous  compounds,  important  though  they  may 
be,  with  which  chemistry  as  a  science  has  to  deal.  Nor 
is  it  advisable  that  the  high  school  course  should  be  but 
a  briefer  model  of  some  college  course  designed  for  the 
professional  chemist  or  the  technically  trained  scientist. 
The  history  of  one  high  school l  can  be  taken  as  illustra- 
tive of  the  change  in  science  teaching  that  should  take 
place  in  many.  After  a  series  of  years  in  which  the  science 
course  had  proved  a  failure  this  school  remodelled  the 
course,  aiming  chiefly  (i)  to  give  the  pupil  a  broad  gen- 
eral view  of  the  whole  field  of  science,  at  the  same  time 
arousing  his  interest  and  getting  him  awake  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  work;  (2)  to  explain  to  the  pupil  his  every- 
day environment,  showing  him  that  the  science  of  the 

1  Springfield,  Mass.     See  Teachers'  College  Record,  vol.  XI,  63,  1910. 


CHEMISTRY  189 

school -room  and  the  science  of  the  outside  world  are 
one  and  the  same  thing.  The  result  of  this  change  was 
the  immediate  success  of  the  science  department. 

The  second  difficulty  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  subject 
itself.  Some  knowledge  of  mathematics  and  physics  is 
desirable.  Chemistry  makes  use  of  symbols  and  equa- 
tions and  deals  with  numerous  facts  which  at  first  appear 
almost  totally  disconnected.  Moreover,  atoms  and  mole- 
cules and  their  relations  cannot  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye  or  with  the  microscope.  The  changes  with  which 
chemistry  is  concerned  must  be  inferred  from  the  results 
of  experiments  upon  millions  of  particles  taken  together. 
The  query  "  I've  washed  the  ketchins  and  caught  the  drip- 
pins  and  what  must  I  do  next?"  illustrates  the  attitude 
of  many  students  when  they  first  deal  with  a  precipitate 
and  filtrate.  How  can  the  student  infer  the  wonderful 
changes  in  composition  and  structure  of  which  the  pre- 
cipitation and  separation  are  but  signs?  Time,  atten- 
tion, and  patience  are  required  to  give  the  student  the 
proper  "attitude"  toward  his  work. 
•  The  third  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  some  sort  of 
laboratory  teaching  (not  necessarily  perhaps  in  a  labo- 
ratory) is  essential.  The  installation  of  the  laboratory  is 
a  matter  of  difficulty,  requiring  much  technical  knowledge 
and  considerable  expense.  The  laboratory  teaching  con- 
sumes the  time  of  the  teacher,  and  some  students  do  not 
adjust  themselves  readily  to  the  laboratory  surroundings 
and  work. 

Other  difficulties  will  be  met  by  the  teacher  of  chem- 
istry. Their  detailed  discussion  and  specific  advice  are 
avoided  because  the  best  solution  of  the  difficulties  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  individual  teacher.  No  agreement 
as  to  the  value  of  specific  suggestions  would  be  found  be- 


190  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

cause  each  teacher  can  best  meet  his  own  difficulties  in 
his  own  way.  Thus,  in  the  care  of  apparatus,  one  teacher 
will  require  individual  desk,  equipment  and  carefully 
checked  lists  for  each  student.  Another  will  instil  into 
his  class  such  a  " laboratory  spirit"  that  intentional  dis- 
turbance of  another's  apparatus  is  practically  unknown. 
Neither  teacher  would  succeed  as  well  using  the  system 
of  the  other.  Every  teacher  should  "take  stock"  once  in 
a  while  of  his  class,  the  results  he  is  obtaining,  and  of  his 
methods,  and  meet  his  difficulties  after  a  broad  consid- 
eration of  ways  and  means. 

Suggestions  as  to  the  Teaching  of  Chemistry. — If  the 
objects  for  which  chemistry  is  taught  are  kept  clearly  in 
view,  serious  errors  in  the  method  of  teaching  will  be 
largely  avoided.  The  following  hints  may  prove  of  help 
to  some: 

1.  Interest  the  pupil  in  his  surroundings.     Get  him  to 
asking  questions  about  the  composition  of  water,  air, 
wood,  brick,  soil,  rocks,  sugar,  salt,  food — in  short,  any- 
thing with  which  he  comes  in  contact — and  questions 
about  the  changes  which  these  bodies  do  and  can  under- 
go- 

2.  Interest  the  pupil  in  any  local  chemical  industry. 
If  in  the  country,  pay  particular  attention  to  soils  and 
fertilizers,  the  chemistry  of  dairying  and  of  breadmaking, 
etc.     Have  reference  books  at  hand  and  encourage  the 
pupil  to  read  about  the  manufacture  of  any  article  in 
which   he  has  become   interested.     He  will  remember 
possibly  more  than  you  think,  but  the  habit  of  "looking 
things  up,"  if  once  acquired,  will  be  of  more  benefit  than 
the  immediate  knowledge  gained. 

3.  Keep  your  eyes  always  open   to  give  the  student 
some  specifically  useful  knowledge  about  soils  and  fer- 


CHEMISTRY  191 

tilizers,  paints,  dairying,  insecticides,  disinfectants,  pre- 
servatives, patent  medicines,  removing  stains,  antidotes 
for  poisons,  etc.  Some  seed  is  sure  to  fall  on  good  ground 
where  it  will  bring  forth  a  hundred-fold.  Make  the  in- 
formation practical.  Devote  a  day  to  headache  prepara- 
tions, expose  the  patent  medicine  frauds  that  advertise 
in  the  local  papers,  study  the  community  water  supply 
and  its  purity.  If  some  college  professor  or  examination 
board  thinks  that  the  students'  time  could  be  better  spent 
in  studying  the  compounds  of  magnesium  and  their 
properties,  think  the  matter  over  and  see  if  you  can  agree 
with  them.  Probably  few  teachers  could,  and  perhaps 
none  should,  treat  of  all  of  the  subjects  mentioned.  It 
is  not  intended  that  the  course  should  primarily  be  in- 
dustrial or  technical. 

4.  Try  to  give  the  pupil  an  outline  of  chemical  science 
— its  primary  laws  and  its  theories.     While  his  interest 
is  being  aroused  and  certain  useful  facts  are  being  taught 
in  a  more  or  less  hop,  skip,  and  jump  fashion,  do  not  for- 
get that  chemistry  is  a  science,  and,  therefore,  lay  as  sure 
a  foundation  for  further  work  as  your  time  and  skill  will 
allow.    The  pupil's  interest  is  at  first  the  great  thing  to 
be  gained,  but  guide  his  interest.     Don't  follow  his  every 
impulse,  but  in  addition  to  any  side  questions  that  come 
up,  make  some  definite  progress  in  a  given  direction  with 
each  lesson.     The  amount  of  the  science  of  chemistry 
that  can  be  taught  in  an  elementary  home  fashion  is 
limited  almost  solely  by  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  the 
teacher. 

5.  Remember  always  that  it  is  not  what  the  student 
knows,  but  what  he  is  able  to  do  in.  after  life  that  deter- 
mines his  success.     Therefore,  in  all  of  your  teaching 
make  the  pupil  think  for  himself  and  do  for  himself 


192  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Cultivate  his  imagination;  it  is  a  valuable  aid  to  right 
thinking.  Every  question  asked  and  answered  by  the 
pupil  himself  is  worth  ten  asked  by  you  and  answered  by 
the  pupil  with  your  aid.  But  do  not  let  him  waste  too 
much  time  foolishly.  Remember  that  perhaps  most  of 
his  questions  neither  you  nor  any  one  else  can  completely 
answer. 

Teach  him  where  and  how  to  get  more  knowledge,  be- 
cause knowledge  increases  the  power  to  do  things. 

6.  Do  not  make  the  course  a  mere  memory  exercise. 
Where  this  is  done  the  fact  that  the  student  on  examina- 
tion describes  hydrogen  for  chlorine  is  not  surprising. 
Only  good  luck  could  keep  him  from  making  some  such 
mistake.     But  worse  than  the  mistake — his  knowledge 
when  gained  is  so  far  removed  from  his  environment  that 
it  is  perfectly  useless  to  him.     Why  not  call  hydrogen 
chlorine  ? 

7.  Review  constantly.     "We  do  not  learn  things  once 
for  all." 

8.  Illustrate  the  course  -with  experiments  where  prac- 
ticable. 

9.  Do  not  design  the  course  primarily  to  satisfy  a  col- 
lege entrance  requirement.     Do  not  be  over  anxious  to 
obtain  college  credit  for  the  course.     For  college  entrance 
the  important  question  in  the  past  has  been  "What  do 
you  know?"     In  life  the  important  question  is  "What 
can  you  do?"     Some  day  the  colleges  and  universities 
will  recognize  that  the  training  which  best  fits  a  man  for 
life  should  be  acceptable  as  an  entrance  requirement,  and 
adjustment  of  credits  will  follow. 

Suggestions  as  to  the  Laboratory  Equipment. — There  is 
marked  difference  of  opinion  here.  I  would  like  to  con- 
trast two  quotations.  "If  the  facilities  of  the  school 


CHEMISTRY  193 

preclude  the  possibility  of  providing  room  and  apparatus 
for  laboratory  work,  the  natural  science  in  the  programme 
should  either  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  or  temporarily 
eliminated.  As  facilities  for  the  laboratory  work  become 
available  it  is  well  to  equip  adequately  for  work  in  one 
science,  omitting  all  others  for  a  time  if  necessary.  ... 
Generally  speaking,  chemistry  should  not  be  introduced 
into  the  programme  until  a  suitable  room  can  be  devoted 
entirely  to  the  laboratory."  1  This  attitude  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  lack  of  chemistry  courses  in  numerous  high 
schools.  The  other  quotation  is  taken  from  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  the  chemist,  Wohler,  of  his  visit  to  the  lab- 
oratory of  Berzelius,  in  which  so  many  famous  discoveries 
had  been  made.  "  No  water,  no  gas,  no  hoods,  no  oven, 
were  to  be  seen;  a  couple  of  plain  tables,  a  blow-pipe, 
a  few  shelves  with  bottles,  a  little  simple  apparatus,  and 
a  large  water  barrel  whereat  Anna,  the  ancient  cook  of 
the  establishment,  washed  the  laboratory  dishes,  com- 
pleted the  furnishings  of  this  room,  famous  throughout 
Europe  for  the  work  which  had  been  done  in  it.  In  the 
kitchen  which  adjoined,  and  where  Anna  cooked,  was  a 
small  furnace  and  a  sand  bath  for  heating  purposes." 

The  laboratory  equipment  can  be  made  as  expensive 
as  desired,  and  in  many  cases  considerable  expense  is 
justifiable;  but  an  expensive  equipment  is  not  an  abso- 
lute necessity.  If  only  a  few  dollars  are  available  a 
start  can  be  made.  A  poor  equipment  does  require 
more  time  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The 
proper  adjustment  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  chemi- 
cals and  apparatus,  and  the  numerous  details  of  labora- 
tory equipment,  to  the  needs  and  finances  of  a  particu- 
lar school,  are  matters  requiring  so  much  technical 

1  Brown,  "  The  American  High  School,"  pp.  147,  183. 


194  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

knowledge  that  in  every  State  some  authority  should  be 
provided  from  whom  efficient  aid  and  direction  can  be 
secured  by  any  school  desiring  assistance. 

Suggestions  as  to  the  Laboratory  Work. — i.  The  lab- 
oratory course  should  be  designed  to  increase  the  pupil's 
interest  in  his  work,  to  increase  his  power  to  see,  think, 
and  do  for  himself,  and  to  make  him  acquainted  with 
the  chemicals,  methods  of  manipulation,  reactions,  and 
laws,  at  first  hand. 

2.  Have  the  pupil  keep  a  laboratory  note-book,  and 
insist  on  the  use  of  reasonably  good  English,  on  neatness, 
and  on  clearness,  and  that  all  entries  shall  be  made  when 
the  experiment  is  performed.     Full  directions,  some  ex- 
planations and  questions,  are  useful  in  the  laboratory 
manual,  but  strictly  guiding  subheads  are  to  be  avoided. 
A  loose-leaf  system  is  an  advantage. 

3.  The  attention  of  the  teacher  must  be  given  repeatedly 
to  each  individual  student  while  in  the  laboratory. 

4.  Some  problems  should  accompany  the  course  in 
chemistry.     These  problems  should  always  be  practical 
and  should  be  made  more  of  a  laboratory  than  a  class- 
room exercise. 

5.  Do  not  have  much  exact  measurement.     A  student 
may  measure  a  thing  exactly  and  know  nothing  about  it. 
In  fact  his  mind  is  easily  diverted  from  the  real  problem 
to  the  mechanical  details  of  the  measurement.     Some 
science  courses  have  been  aptly  called  "  starvation  courses 
in  measurements." 

6.  Sacrifice  some  of  the  experiments  "in  the  book" 
for  some  more  nearly  home-made.     The  added  interest 
will  repay  the  trouble. 

7.  Make  the  student  think,  but  do  not  expect  him  to 
rediscover  chemical  laws,  or  to  prove  them.     A  little 


CHEMISTRY  195 

consideration  of  any  law  will  probably  show  you  that 
you  could  not,  if  turned  loose  in  the  best  chemical  labora- 
tory in  the  country,  prove  the  law  in  six  months.  Let 
the  experiments  illustrate  the  laws;  they  will  help  the 
student  to  remember  and  to  understand  them. 

8.  Sometimes  the  student  gets  more  results  than  he 
can  take  care  of.  He  may  not  select  the  one  that  you 
had  in  mind.  Do  not  expect  him  always  to  draw  your 
conclusion,  without  your  assistance,  from  an  experiment 
assigned  by  you. 

Time  and  Position  to  be  Allotted  to  the  Course  in 
Chemistry. — As  to  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  a  study  of 
chemistry,  a  hard  and  fast  rule  is  certainly  neither 
possible  nor  desirable.  No  adequate  discussion  of  this 
subject  could  omit  a  consideration  of  all  of  the  science 
courses  at  the  same  time.  We  are  then  confronted  with 
a  fact  particularly  emphasized  by  G.  H.  Mead.1  "The 
sciences  in  the  high  schools  are  hopelessly  isolated. 
They  exist  in  water-tight  compartments,  with  none  of 
the  interrelationships  which  are  implied  in  their  own  sub- 
ject-matter, and  which  are  essential  to  their  comprehen- 
sion, especially  for  the  student  of  this  period."  Science 
teaching  should  begin  early  in  the  elementary  school  and 
proceed  by  carefully  graded  steps  throughout  the  last 
year  of  the  high  school.  At  the  present  time  the  arrange- 
ment of  text-books  and  subjects,  and  the  adjustment  of 
teachers,  makes  this  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  But 
only  in  this  way  could  the  very  large  number  of  students 
who  fail  to  complete  the  high  school  course  gain  some 
elementary  knowledge  of  the  various  sciences — that  is 
to  say,  gain  some  scientific  knowledge  of  the  world  about 
them,  in  which  they  are  to  live. 

1  School  Review,  vol.  XIV,  240,  1906. 


196  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Under  this  ideal  arrangement,  to  be  realized  when 
possible,  much  elementary  chemistry  has  found  its  way 
into  the  various  science  courses  devoted  mainly  to  other 
subjects.  The  more  formal  and  scientific  development 
of  the  subject  can  then  well  be  postponed  to  the  last 
year  of  the  high  school,  or  perhaps  the  course  can  be 
taken  as  an  elective  study  at  an  earlier  period.  The 
laboratory  work  is  best  given  in  double  periods.  Two 
double  periods  per  week  for  the  laboratory  work,  and 
three  single  periods  for  recitation  and  lecture  extend- 
ing throughout  the  year  (one  hundred  and  sixty-two 
hours  in  all)  are  suggested  as  a  fair  arrangement  and 
one  in  accord  with  the  best  usage  at  present.  Perhaps 
in  the  best  equipped  schools  the  course  could  be  ex- 
tended, and  part  of  the  course  made  optional,  since  "  the 
value  of  any  study  depends  largely  upon  the  reaction  of 
the  student" 

The  Equipment  of  the  Teacher. — In  selecting  a  teacher 
even  for  so  technical  a  subject  as  chemistry  the  person- 
ality of  the  teacher  counts  for  more  than  his  knowledge. 
Granting  suitable  personality  in  the  teacher,  the  more 
technical  knowledge,  skill,  and  experience  he  has  the 
better,  ad  infinitum,  and  equally  as  important  is  the 
ability  to  teach.  Highly  specialized  training  in  a  par- 
ticular subject,  such  as  chemistry,  of  itself  probably 
neither  gives  nor  destroys  the  ability  to  teach.  There  is 
little  more  to  be  said.  In  any  given  case  the  selection 
of  a  teacher  narrows  itself  down  to  a  consideration  of 
the  special  fitness  of  particular  individuals.  Rigid  econ- 
omy in  the  salaries  offered  results  inevitably  in  the  long 
run  in  a  sacrifice  of  efficiency. 

Colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools  can  well 
give  more  attention  to  equipping  the  future  teachers  of 


CHEMISTRY  197 

chemistry  to  meet  the  difficulties  incident  to  the  installa- 
tion of  efficient  laboratory  instruction. 

Text-Books  and  Reference  Books. — A  text-book  should 
be  chosen  with  reference  both  to  the  teacher  and  to  the 
pupil.  The  text-books  differ  not  only  as  regards  style, 
clearness,  and  amount  of  subject-matter  introduced,  but, 
also,  they  vary  greatly  in  the  emphasis  placed  on  the 
descriptive  side  of  chemistry  (the  facts)  as  opposed  to 
the  generalizations  (the  theories  and  laws)  underlying  the 
facts.  Also  they  vary  in  the  emphasis  placed  on  the 
scientific  as  opposed  to  the  practical  side  of  chemistry. 
Let  teachers  note  these  differences  and  select  a  book 
suitable  for  their  purpose.  If  the  text-book  adopted 
does  not  sufficiently  emphasize  the  practical  side  of  chem- 
istry, the  teacher  should  not  hesitate  to  draw  material  for 
an  occasional  lesson  from  the  reference  books  at  hand. 


CHAPTER  IX 
BIOLOGY 

ARTHUR  S.  PEARSE,  PH.D. 

'FORMERLY  ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ZOOLOGY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN; 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  BIOLOGY,  ST.  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY 

SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE 

"The  student  of  nature  can  do  no  more  than  strive  toward 
the  truth.  When  he  does  not  find  the  whole  truth  there  is  but 
one  gospel  for  his  salvation — still  to  strive  toward  the  truth.  .  .  . 
And  so,  if  you  ask  whether  I  look  to  a  day  when  we  shall  know 
the  whole  truth  in  regard  to  organic  mechanism  and  organic 
evolution,  I  answer:  No!  But  let  us  go  forward." — Wilson. 

"A  good  teacher  is  one  who  puts  the  least  possible  obstruction 
in  the  way  of  a  student." — Coulter. 

Introductory — Importance  of  Biology. — The  study  of 
biology  is  of  particular  importance  in  education  since  our 
entire  store  of  knowledge  has  its  basis  in  the  activities  of 
living  substance.  All  the  conditions  which  human  beings 
most  desire  to  attain  represent  the  fulfilment  of  biological 
laws.  The  youth  hungers  for  maturity — he  is  completing 
his  life  cycle;  the  man  spends  long  days  and  sleepless 
nights  striving  to  attain  success — this  is  his  endeavor  to 
survive  in  the  struggle  for  existence;  the  mother  longs  for 
a  child  and,  once  she  has  one,  will  sacrifice  all  else  to  it 
— thus  is  the  race  preserved.  Love,  hate,  industry,  knowl- 
edge, power,  success  are  all  conditioned  by  nutrition, 
growth,  excretion,  oxidation,  and  other  processes  which 
are  common  not  only  to  all  animals  but  to  plants  as 
well.  Small  wonder,  then,  that  educators  have  lately 

198 


BIOLOGY  199 

found  a  place  for  biology  in  the  high  school  curriculum 
and  that  it  has  steadily  gained  ground. 

For  those  who  still  question  the  value  of  biology,  it  is 
easy  to  find  answers.  From  the  point  of  view  of  mental 
training,  the  proper  study  of  living  things  offers  an  ex- 
cellent field  for  (i)  gathering  first-hand  knowledge,  (2) 
gaining  clear  ideas,  (3)  making  concrete  analyses,  (4) 
using  the  mind  for  abstraction  and  discrimination,  (5) 
seeing  resemblances,  (6)  forming  general  concepts,  and 
(7)  giving  logical  definitions.  Furthermore,  "biology 
has  a  special  function  in  training,  in  that  it  has  for  its 
subject-matter  living  organisms  whose  varying  and  un- 
certain behavior  train  the  judgment  of  youth  better  to 
understand  the  behavior  of  men.  It  certainly  exercises 
the  judgment  in  a  different  way  than  do  the  exact  sciences 
of  physics  and  chemistry."  The  aesthetic  sense  is  cul- 
tivated so  that  a  finer  appreciation  of  the  grandeur  and 
beauty  of  the  living  universe  is  gained  without  the  sen- 
timentality and  superstition  which  have  often  been  char- 
acteristic of  lovers  of  nature. 

For  the  practical  mind  a  host  of  instances  might  be 
cited  wherein  biology  is  of  inestimable  value  to  man. 
The  study  of  the  biology  of  such  afflictions  as  malaria, 
yellow-fever,  and  the  hook-worm  disease  has  revolution- 
ized our  ideas,  and  we  are  amazed  when  we  look  back 
on  the  methods  formerly  used  in  the  treatment  of  such 
diseases.  According  to  authoritative  estimates,  more  than 
four  hundred  million  dollars  are  lost  annually  in  the 
United  States  through  the  ravages  of  insects,  and  it  seems 
fitting  that  our  high  school  students  should  have  some 
general  notions  concerning  them.  Fifteen  per  cent  of 
the  hogs  in  certain  localities  are  infected  with  the  dread 
trichina.  Should  we  not  learn  how  this  comes  about? 


200  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

As  long  ago  as  1897,  fifteen  hundred  persons  were  em- 
ployed in  making  pearl  buttons  from  clam-shells  in  the 
State  of  Iowa.  Should  not  young  men  in  such  a  locality 
have  a  chance  to  learn  something  about  clams?  And 
so  on  ad  infinitum. 

But  biology  has  still  other  spheres  of  influence.  The 
social  life  of  any  boy  or  girl  who  studies  it  will  take  on 
a  newer  and  broader  aspect,  by  gaining  a  proper  per- 
spective of  man's  place  in  nature.  In  some  respects  man 
excels  all  other  organisms,  in  others  he  is  inferior  to  some 
of  the  so-called  lower  animals;  at  all  events,  he  is  only 
an  animal  and  is  subject  to  the  same  biological  laws  as 
others.  And  finally,mo  person  who  has  once  grasped  the 
fundamental  principles  of  biology  (can  fail  to  see  that  his 
whole  mental  and  moral  nature  depends  upon  the  proper 
cultivation  of  his  body  (particularly  his  brain  cells) ;  con- 
sequently, biological  knowledge  ought  to  be  a  daily  incen- 
tive to  a  clean,  moderate,  and  worthy  manhood. 

Historical. — Although  the  scientific  study  of  biology 
dates  from  the  time  of  Aristotle,  it  was  not  given  a  place 
in  the  school  curriculum  before  Pestalozzi.  In  the 
United  States  biology  made  its  way  into  the  secondary 
schools  during  the  nineteenth  century.  For  the  first 
quarter  of  the  century  no  zoology  was  taught.  Botany, 
being  deemed  more  elegant  and  precise,  was  offered  in 
a  few  "female  seminaries."  From  1825  until  about  1875 
zoology  and  botany  were  taught  from  text-books  with 
the  chief  emphasis  on  the  systematic  side — the  central 
idea  being  to  inspire  students  with  admiration  for  the 
works  of  the  Creator.  About  1875  comparative  anat- 
omy began  to  be  introduced  into  zoology  classes,  and 
students  were  first  required  to  verify  descriptions  by 
reference  to  dissections  and  demonstrations,  and  later  to 


BIOLOGY  201 

make  dissections  for  themselves;  on  the  botanical  side, 
work  outside  the  text-book  was  largely  confined  to  the 
preparation  of  herbaria. 

Rapid  advances  in  high  school  biology  have  come 
within  the  past  twenty-five  years.  Since  1885  effective 
laboratory  work  has  been  more  generally  present  in  the 
better  schools.  Before  this  time  biology  was  "not  yet 
recognized  as  one  of  the  essential  factors  of  education"; 
the  common  facts  relating  to  the  subject  were  not  widely 
known,  and  there  were  neither  competent  teachers  nor 
acceptable  text-books.  Furthermore,  the  subject  was 
not  generally  supposed  to  furnish  a  broad  scope  for  men- 
tal discipline. 

In  1892  the  "Committee  of  Ten"  recommended  that  a 
minimum  of  biological  instruction  should  be  one  year, 
preferably  devoted  to  either  botany  or  zoology,  with 
daily  recitations.  By  1895  biology  had  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  valuable  and  important.  At  this  time  botany 
was  still  preferred  to  zoology  for  three  reasons:  (i)  It 
was  supposed  to  be  better  fitted  for  the  child's  tastes  and 
uses,  (2)  more  high  school  teachers  were  prepared  in 
botany,  and  (3)  it  was  demanded  as  a  college  entrance 
requirement. 

During  the  past  ten  years  there  has  been  a  strong 
reaction  against  the  old  stereotyped  conception  which 
made  of  botany  and  zoology  simply  a  mental  exercise 
in  classification  and  morphology.  In  1903  Miss  Brown 
•  said  :  "  The  laboratory  method  itself,  which  has  lived 
now  upwards  of  fifteen  years,  has  not  come  through  un- 
changed. From  verification  it  has  passed  to  investigation. 
It  has  become  more  flexible  and  more  readily  adapts 
itself  to  varying  conditions.  The  day  of  laboratory 
guides  is  passing,  but  in  its  place  is  coming  dynamic 


•TATB  TRAC'-  '  ?<**• 

BARB/ 

07  °)  \ 


202  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

work,  entailing  greater  attention  to  physiology  and  func- 
tion." Thus  our  methods  of  presentation  have  passed 
from  narrative  to  classification,  from  classification  to 
morphology,  and  we  are  now  "entering  upon  a  new 
phase  which  may  be  called  investigation."  • 

Correlated  with  the  change  in  methods  of  teaching 
have  been  changes  in  the  various  accessories  to  such  in- 
struction. During  the  past  twenty-five  years  such  com- 
plicated and  expensive  pieces  of  apparatus  as  the  com- 
pound microscope,  the  camera,  the  clinostat,  and  the 
projection  lantern  have  come  into  general  use.  We 
have  advanced  from  the  detailed  one-sided  descriptive 
text-books  of  the  older  writers,  to  comprehensive  modern 
works,  like  those  of  Bergen  and  Davis,  Coulter,  Jordan, 
Kellogg  and  Heath,  Linville  and  Kelly,  and  Hunter, 
which  can  be  read  and  understood  by  high  school  students, 
but  which  nevertheless  give  some  adequate  idea  of  the 
present  status  of  botanical  and  zoological  thought. 

Hunter  gives  a  convincing  statement  of  the  growing 
recognition  of  the  educational  value  of  biology  in  this 
country.  He  has  gathered  statistics  from  276  representa- 
tive high  schools  distributed  through  34  States.  Of  the 
1,371  science  courses  given,  430  were  biological  (623  if 
physiology  courses  were  included).  Hunter  says:  "430 
courses  in  biologic  science  are  given  as  against  166 
courses  in  physiography,  253  courses  in  chemistry,  and 
268  courses  in  physics."  2 

Ideas  concerning  the  educational  value  of  biological 
studies  have  been  modified  during  the  past  few  years. 
Biology  first  gained  its  place  in  the  high  school  curricu- 
'um  on  account  of  the  facts  it  presented.  The  dissection 

1  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  II,  pp.  201-209,  256-264. 
3  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  X,  pp.  i-io,  103-110. 


BIOLOGY  203 

and  classification  of  types  was  for  a  time  made  an  end  in 
itself,  but  it  soon  came  to  be  recognized  that  biology  was 
a  valuable  means  for  training  in  observation.  But  even 
at  this  stage,  the  subject  was  often  mere  drudgery  in  the 
hands  of  mediocre  teachers,  for  the  aim  was  to  "cover" 
a  certain  number  of  " forms"  with  due  regard  to  accuracy 
in  observation.  The  best  teachers  soon  saw  opportuni- 
ties for  improvement.  The  chief  fault  with  the  method 
was  that  the  questions  for  which  the  laboratory  guides 
required  solutions  could  be  answered  by  mere  observa- 
tion, and  the  student  was  not  encouraged  to  think.  Thus, 
the  training,  though  good,  was  not  in  thinking,  but  in 
more  or  less  mechanical  processes,  such  as  the  making  of 
diagrammatic  drawings,  and  memorizing  classifications 
and  the  structural  details  pertaining  to  certain  types. 
One  of  the  leading  high  school  teachers  of  the  Eastern 
United  States  describes  the  conditions  in  the  following 
words:  "Before  the  crisis  came,  however,  we  developed 
the  belief  that  we  could  get  more  than  mere  observation 
from  the  pupil.  We  could  get  him  to  think  and  to  form 
judgments.  .  .  .  We  know  that  the  method  of  experi- 
mentation, the  so-called  scientific  method,  is  the  process 
by  which  the  great  truths  of  science  have  been  worked 
out.  Some  teachers  are  beginning  to  use  the  methods  in 
work  in  biology  in  the  schools,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  specialists  in  research,  but  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  pupils  how  problems  may  arise,  how  to 
formulate  problems  for  themselves,  how  the  factors  of  a 
problem  are  analyzed,  how  the  conditions  of  experiment 
must  be  controlled,  what  results  are,  and  that  conclusions 
must  be  based  on  results."  1 

1  Linville,  H.  R.,  "The  Practical  Use  of  Biology,"  Sthool  Science  and 
Mathematics,  vol.  IX,  pp.  121-130. 


204  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  idea  that  biology  may  offer  all  that  it  has  included 
heretofore,  and  at  the  same  time  give  students  mental 
training  by  presenting  problems  for  solution,  has  been 
stimulating  for  both  teachers  and  pupils,  and  gives  the 
greatest  promise  for  future  advancement. 

Present  Status  of  High  School  Biology. — The  correla- 
tion between  the  different  branches  of  science  is  gradually 
becoming  closer,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is  not 
far  distant  when  a  plan  may  be  adopted  for  the  sciences 
which  will  be  as  well  organized  as  those  now  followed 
by  high  school  teachers  of  language  or  mathematics. 
"  Schools  offering  biologic  science  early  in  the  course  with 
physics  and  chemistry  later,  after  considerable  mathe- 
matics, report  almost  uniformly  satisfactory  conditions. 
There  is,  however,  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  place  of  physiography.  We  may  .  .  .  divide  the 
schools  into  two  groups,  one  giving  physiography  in  the 
first  year  followed  by  biology  in  the  second  year,  and  those 
giving  biologic  science  in  the  first  year  followed  by  physi- 
ography."1 Except  in  some  Eastern  States,  biology  is 
usually  given  in  the  second  year,  and  there  are  many 
reasons  why  this  seems  to  be  the  best  plan,  though  there 
are,  of  course,  some  arguments  against  it. 

Although  the  sequence  in  high  school  science  is  be- 
coming better  co-ordinated,  the  same  cannot  be  said 
of  the  particular  field  of  biology.  Miss  Dawson  justly 
criticises  the  present  system  and  gives  a  very  pointed 
illustration.  She  visited  a  college,  a  normal  school,  and 
a  high  school  on  the  same  day,  and  found  all  the  classes 
studying  the  same  animal  in  much  the  same  way.2  Some 

1  Hunter,  G.  W.,  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  X,  pp.  i-io, 
103-110. 
*  Dawson,  J.,  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  IX,  pp.  653-657. 


BIOLOGY  205 

of  the  work  now  given  in  high  schools  has  been  copied 
from  universities,  and  there  is  much  duplication.  How- 
ever, there  is  a  sentiment  for  courses  especially  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  high  school  students  without  reference  to 
anything  else;  in  fact,  many  high  schools  are  giving  such 
courses  at  the  present  time.  Nevertheless,  the  great  ques- 
tion to-day  is  not  the  value  or  fitness  of  biological  study, 
but  what  to  teach. 

Whitney1  has  pointed  out  that  the  time  allowed  in 
our  limited  curriculums  is  not  adequate  for  the  proper 
presentation  of  scientific  subjects,  and  there  is  little  cor- 
relation between  them.  The  time  must  come  when  edu- 
cators cannot  avoid  giving  a  more  important  place  to 
science  on  account  of  its  close  relation  to  thinking,  living, 
and  many  practical  problems.  The  student  in  the  future 
will  get  mental  training  from  his  science  similar  to  that 
which  he  now  receives  from  other  subjects,  which  often 
have  little  else  than  their  so-called  disciplinary  value  to 
commend  them.  This  will  not  come  in  ten  years,  per- 
haps not  in  twenty;  it  must  be  a  matter  of  growth  and  the 
biology  teachers  will  have  to  lead  the  way.  When  the  in- 
struction in  high  school  biology  is  as  well  organized  as 
that  in  Latin  (without  preparation  before  the  high  school) 
or  mathematics  (preceded  by  excellent  training  in  the 
grades)  those  in  authority  will  not  question  the  wisdom  or 
value  of  two  or  even  three  or  four  year  programmes  for 
instruction  in  the  subject. 

At  the  present  time  little  is  done  in  the  way  of  organized 
nature  study  before  the  high  school.  About  half  the 
leading  high  school  systems  in  this  country  attempt  to 
carry  on  such  work  to  some  extent,  and  the  proportion  is 
much  less  in  the  smaller  towns.  It  seems  probable  that 

1  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  X,  pp.  369-381. 


206  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  study  of  nature  will  become  more  and  more  prevalent 
in  the  grades,  but  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  usually  of 
enough  importance  to  afford  any  sort  of  a  basis  for  bio- 
logical instruction  in  the  high  school. 

If  we  turn  to  the  school  journals  of  our  day  for  light 
on  the  present  status  of  the  high  school  biology  curricu- 
lum, we  find  great  diversity  of  opinion.  There  are  advo- 
cates for  one  year  biology  courses,  one  year  botany  or 
zoology  courses,  agriculture,  hygiene,  ecology,  physiology, 
economic  biology,  type  study,  classification,  field-work, 
home  work,  museum  work,  and  various  other  phases  of 
biological  instruction.  The  time  actually  devoted  to  bi- 
ology varies  from  one  or  two  hours  per  week  for  half  a 
year  (in  some  places  in  the  South)  to  as  much  as  ten  hours 
per  week  for  ten  months.  Little  progress  will  result 
from  the  agitation  of  such  topics  as  the  order  of  type  study, 
how  much  the  microscope  should  be  used,  or  how  much 
time  should  be  spent  in  the  field,  or  laboratory,  or  in  the 
study  of  a  text-book.  These  are  details  which  should  be 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
writer,  the  most  hopeful  sign  for  the  future  is  the  fact  that 
two  of  the  foremost  high  school  biology  teachers  in  the 
United  States,  Walter1  and  Linville,2  have  recently  advo- 
cated courses  based,  not  on  classification  nor  a  study  of 
types,  nor  even  on  strict  botany  or  zoology,  but  on  ideas. 

Biology  is  confronted  with  two  important  problems  in 
the  high  school;  (i)  it  has  more  ground  to  cover  than 
is  possible  in  the  allotted  time,  and  (2)  it  is  sometimes 
obliged  to  compete  with  its  own  subsciences,  like  agri- 

1  Walter,  H.  E.,  "An  Ideal  Course  in  Biology  for  the  High  School," 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  IX,  pp.  717-724,  840-847. 

1  Linville,  H.  R.,  "Old  and  New  Ideas  in  Biology  Teaching,"  School 
Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  X,  pp.  210-216. 


BIOLOGY  207 

culture  and  physiology,  and  with  such  subjects  as  manual 
training  and  domestic  science.  Until  adequate  time  is 
allowed,  biology  must  present  general  principles  or  lose 
students  through  competition.  This  does  not  mean  that 
high  school  students  should  study  nothing  but  general 
ideas;  in  fact,  it  is  better  to  make  the  major  part  of  the 
work  concrete,  but  exercises  should  be  selected  to  illus- 
trate general  facts,  and  presented  so  that  students  will 
receive  such  training  that  they  can  apply  the  knowledge 
they  gain  after  they  are  out  of  school.  The  idea  of  gener- 
alization will  meet  with  opposition  from  many  teachers 
who  have  emphasized  one  side  of  biology  for  several  years, 
and  from  those  whose  training  has  been  narrow;  but  the 
writer  sees  no  objection  to  selecting  certain  general  prin- 
ciples which  biologists  might  agree  to  teach  in  every  high 
school  in  the  United  States,  and  which  might  form  a  basis 
for  various  courses  in  which  the  emphasis  was  placed  on 
agriculture,  human  physiology,  forestry,  fisheries,  or  any- 
thing else  that  was  important  in  a  particular  community. 
The  time  was  when  high  school  teachers  knew  so  little 
that  they  were  the  slaves  of  tradition  and  authority,  but 
at  the  present  time  most  of  them  are  able  to  think  for 
themselves.  There  are  many  places  in  the  United  States 
where  the  very  best  work  is  being  done  by  teachers  who 
are  able  to  adjust  the  great  truths  of  biology  to  the  ani- 
mals and  plants  in  their  vicinity,  and  to  the  students  in 
their  school.  The  writer  takes  the  liberty  of  grouping 
biology  teachers  (without  regard  to  their  training)  into 
four  classes:  (i)  Those  who  assign  lessons  and  conduct 
recitations;  (2)  those  who  not  only  require  good  recita- 
tions but  also  conduct  acceptable  laboratory  work  by 
the  use  of  a  manual;  (3)  those  who  combine  laboratory 
and  recitation  work  with  field  excursions  and  individual 


208  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

outside  work  by  students,  and  (4)  those  who  do  all  the 
things  mentioned  under  (3)  and  also  make  their  work  a 
constant  study,  attempting  to  correlate  their  own  knowl- 
edge and  training  with  local  conditions  and  new  ideas  in 
such  a  way  that  their  students  get  the  maximum  amount 
of  good. 

Obstacles  to  Successful  Biology  Teaching. — Probably 
the  chief  factor  which  has  operated  to  inhibit  progress 
in  biological  instruction  has  been  respect  for  authority 
and  tradition  on  the  part  of  teachers.  The  limited  train- 
ing formerly  offered  them  gave  no  broad  background  of 
knowledge  on  which  to  draw  for  instruction.  This  re- 
sulted in  narrow  biology  courses  copied  from  those  in 
universities.  There  has  been  a  lack  of  willingness  on  the 
part  of  teachers  to  study  the  common  things  in  their  vi- 
cinity with  their  classes  because  they  knew  nothing  about 
them.  Hence,  students  have  been  obliged  to  grind  over 
the  matter  their  teacher  learned  in  college,  or  to  use  a 
manual  written  by  some  college  professor  or  some  one 
who  held  to  college  methods  and  ideals.  The  colleges 
and  universities  have  hindered,  rather  than  helped,  the 
high  schools  in  this  matter.  Instead  of  allowing  the 
high  schools  to  work  out  a  plan  for  their  own  salvation, 
colleges  have  often  tied  them  down  by  arbitrary  entrance 
requirements  which  compelled  students  to  study  certain 
types  or  phases  of  biological  science  to  the  exclusion  of 
others.  Furthermore,  traditions  have  been  fostered  so 
long  by  some  college  departments  that  most  high  schools 
do  not  now  give  full  credit  for  certain  subjects  unless  two 
full  years  have  been  devoted  to  the  study.  Nothing  but 
tradition  permits  carefully  worked  out  detailed  courses, 
which  have  little  value  to  the  majority  of  students  except 
the  training  they  give,  to  dominate  the  high  school  cur- 


BIOLOGY  209 

riculum  to  such  an  extent  that  other  more  practical  sub- 
jects with  equal  training  value  are  slighted. 

There  has  been  a  lack  of  good  biology  teachers,  and 
the  demand  even  now  far  exceeds  the  supply.  Adequate 
training  is  of  course  necessary;  some  of  the  larger  cities 
have  recently  gone  so  far  as  to  require  a  master's  or  even 
a  doctor's  degree.  The  writer  feels  that  four  years  of 
college  work  ought  to  suffice  to  train  a  biology  teacher, 
if  it  is  properly  directed  with  emphasis  in  particular 
fields,  and  if  the  teacher  takes  measures  to  insure  his  own 
growth  after  graduation.  A  college  student  preparing  to 
teach  biology  ought  to  take  courses  covering  (i)  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  classification,  morphology,  physiology, 
ecology,  geographical  distribution,  and  evolution;  (2) 
practical  methods  of  teaching;  (3)  detailed  knowledge  of  a 
number  of  types;  (4)  general  knowledge  concerning  cer- 
tain topics,  such  as  the  history  of  biology  and  biological 
thought,  and  (5)  general  courses  in  physics,  chemistry, 
geology,  and  psychology.  But  the  lack  of  good  teachers 
has  not  been  altogether  due  to  improper  training  nor  to 
the  limitations  imposed  on  those  who  undertook  such 
work;  low  salaries  have  kept  many  good  teachers  from 
pedagogical  pursuits,  and  many  have  quit  teaching  for 
more  remunerative  occupations.  However,  no  one  gets 
more  than  he  is  worth  in  this  world,  and  when  our  teach- 
ing is  realized  to  be  of  practical  value  by  practical  people, 
the  teacher  will  still  get  less  than  he  is  worth,  but  he  will 
get  more  than  he  does  now.  The  writer  believes  that  the 
remedy  lies  in  educating  the  teacher  as  well  as  the  general 
public. 

Much  poor  teaching  of  biology  has  been  done.  There 
has  often  been  a  lack  of  adaptation  to  high  school  minds 
that  has  led  from  an  absence  of  interest  to  careless  work, 


210  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  sometimes  to  barefaced  cheating  and  dishonesty. 
Teaching  has  often  become  a  mere  routine  (dissect,  ob- 
serve, draw)  applied  to  one  subject  after  another  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  general  bearing  of  such  studies  or 
to  their  practical  application.  VA  fault  related  to  this  has 
been  that  teachers  have  often  made  no  distinction  between 
intensive  and  extensive  work.  Careless  methods  have 
also  been  fostered  because  students  were  required  to  make 
detailed  notes  or  drawings  which  the  teacher  did  not  cor- 
rect. A  good  teacher  will  so  arrange  his  course  that,  with- 
out undue  drudgery  on  his  part,  notes  and  drawings  can 
be  examined,  and  the  student  be  made  to  feel  that  every- 
thing he  does  is  to  be  checked. 

Cheating  is  often  a  difficult  problem  for  the  biology 
teacher,  and  his  methods  often  place  a  premium  on  it. 
It  is  of  course  difficult,  even  if  it  is  desirable,  to  prevent 
the  best  student  at  a  laboratory  table  from  setting  a  stand- 
ard for  his  fellows,  who  often  copy  without  intending 
to  do  so;  but  the  matter  frequently  goes  farther.  Two 
methods  have  been  commonly  used  to  secure  independent 
work  from  students:  (i)  The  work  accomplished  each 
day  is  handed  to  the  teacher  for  correction  at  the  end  of 
the  period;  (2)  students  at  the  same  table  work  on  differ- 
ent plants  or  animals  at  the  same  time.  The  first  method 
prevents  copying  while  students  are  not  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  teacher;  the  second  helps  to  keep  students 
who  work  together  from  dividing  up  the  work  or  helping 
each  other.  If  one  boy  works  out  the  anatomy  of  an 
insect  from  a  beetle,  while  the  boy  next  him  uses  a  grass- 
hopper and  the  girl  across  the  table  studies  a  bee  with 
the  same  end  in  view,  comparison  and  discussion  are 
highly  desirable. 

The  greatest  needs  of  high  school  biology  at  the  present 


BIOLOGY  211 

time  are:  (i)  More  well  trained  teachers;  (2)  more  free- 
dom for  teachers  to  adapt  their  subject  to  the  students, 
the  community,  and  their  own  limitations;  (3)  more  time, 
but  not  necessarily  more  specialized  courses;  (4)  better 
stratification  in  the  educational  system  (i.  e.,  better  se- 
quence in  science  so  that  repetition  is  avoided) ;  (5)  more 
willingness  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  educators  gen- 
erally to  study  conditions  with  the  idea  of  doing  the  stu- 
dent the  most  good. 


CHAPTER  X 
PHYSIOGRAPHY 

WILLIAM  J.  SUTHERLAND,  M.A. 

PRESIDENT    STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,    PLATTEVILLE,    WISCONSIN 

What  Physiography  Is. — Whenever  the  mature  mind 
considers  any  phase  of  earth  phenomena,  its  spirit  of  in- 
quiry looks  for  explanations.  The  causal  element  must 
be  conceived  before  any  phenomenon  can  be  fully  under- 
stood. This  rational  element  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
new  geography  and  is  the  essence  of  that  specialized  de- 
partment known  as  physical  geography  or  physiography. 

A  study  of  physical  environment,  without  reference 
to  its  fitness  as  a  habitat,  is  pure  physiography.  A  study 
of  the  life  of  the  earth,  quite  apart  from  its  environing 
conditions,  is  anatomy  or  morphology.  Modern  methods 
in  biology  consider  life  with  reference  to  environment. 
So  general  geography  is  concerned  with  both  of  these 
departments  of  science,  which  Professor  Davis  has  de- 
nominated the  "physiographic"  and  " ontographic "  rela- 
tionships. Physiography  may  be  termed  the  rational 
phase  of  general  geography. 

As  its  name  implies,  physiography1  is  the  study  of  phys- 
ical science  as  manifested  in  earth  phenomena.  It  is  the 
study  of  earth-physics.  A  gorge  is  observed  to  exist  be- 

1  In  this  discussion  physiography  and  physical  geography  are  con- 
sidered identical  in  nature;  the  latter  designates  a  more  elementary 
treatment. 

212 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  213 

low  the  falls  of  a  stream.  The  inquiring  mind  seeks  to 
satisfy  its  curiosity  through  the  discovery  of  the  causes. 
The  relative  positions  of  hard  and  soft  strata  are  dis- 
covered, and  the  reaction  of  the  falling  water  noted. 
Other  gorges  and  falls  are  examined;  their  features  are 
compared  with  the  first,  and  a  conclusion  relative  to  the 
philosophy  of  waterfalls  is  finally  reached.  Such,  then,  is 
a  study  in  pure  earth-science. 

It  is  sometimes  charged  that  physiography  is  not  itself 
a  fundamental  science;  that  it  borrows  its  subject-matter 
from  the  other  natural  sciences,  and  that  it  is  therefore 
conglomerate  in  nature,  and  hence  unscientific.  It  is 
true  that  facts  common  to  physics,  chemistry,  meteo- 
rology, geology,  astronomy,  etc.,  are  employed  also  in 
physiography,  but  such  use  does  not  make  the  charge 
valid.  How  much  chemistry  is  involved  in  the  study  of 
voltaic  electricity,  in  the  production  of  starch  in  green 
plants,  and  in  the  maintenance  of  temperature  in  animal 
bodies!  Do  not  all  of  the  specialized  sciences  overlap 
at  some  points  ?  Who  can  draw  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  related  sciences,  e.  g.,  between  botany  and  zo- 
ology? The  ultimate  test  of  scientific  character  is  not 
more  concerned  with  the  materials  of  a  subject  than  with 
the  use  it  makes  of  them.  The  masters  of  earth-science 
have  organized  and  unified  its  somewhat  diversified  ma- 
terials into  an  intellectual  structure  quite  as  circumscribed 
and  significant,  quite  as  theoretical  and  functional,  as  is 
botany  or  physics  or  agriculture.  One  who  fully  com- 
prehends the  interaction  of  processes  which  determines 
the  "cycle"  in  earth-science,  has  reached  a  point  where 
he  can  make  a  mental  survey  of  the  nicely  articulated 
materials  that  contribute  to  the  systematization  of  the 
subject.  Its  understanding  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 


214  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

physiographic  processes — diastrophism,  gradation,  and 
vulcanism — whose  adequate  elaboration1  builds  up  the 
science  of  physical  geography  or  physiography. 

New  Methods  of  Study  and  Teaching. — Prior  to  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  rational  element  of  geography  and  the 
adoption  of  a  physiographic  basis,  general  geography  was 
presented  in  a  highly  empirical  or  dogmatic  manner.  The 
new  geography  was  really  ushered  in  through  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  old  geography  upon  a  physiographic  basis. 

Changed  conceptions  of  education  have  engendered  a 
critical  attitude  toward  subject-matter  values.  Every 
subject  must  now  submit  to  searching  evaluation.  The 
growing  opinion  is  that  science  instruction  should  be 
concrete.  Applied  science  is  at  a  premium  in  secondary 
schools.  The  intrinsic  and  specific  values  of  physical 
geography  have  been  demonstrated. 

"Education  and  Life"  is  the  popular  slogan.  The 
test  of  subject-matter  units  is  their  fitness  to  function  in 
life.  Hence  the  effects  of  earth  features  and  processes 
are  highly  important.  A  waterfall  is  studied  not  more 
to  determine  the  philosophy  of  its  own  existence  than  to 
discover  and  comprehend  its  influence  on  industries  and 
the  distribution  of  population.  General  geography  is  re- 
garded as  the  study  of  relationships  that  obtain  between 
the  inorganic  and  organic  worlds,  between  controls  and 
responses.  Now  these  controls,2  or  conditions,  are  physi- 
ographic in  nature  and,  taken  together,  constitute  the 
content  of  physical  geography.  They  are  to  be  studied 
not  as  ends  in  themselves  but  as  the  governing  conditions 
or  controlling  factors  of  physical  environment. 

'See  "Physical  Geography,"  Dryer,  Chas.  R.,  p.  241. 
2 See  "Geographical  Essays,"   Davis,  W.  M.,  chap.  II;  also  "The 
Teaching  of  Geography,"  Sutherland,  William  J.,  chap.  II. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  215 

It  is  evident  that  the  nature  and  content  of  physi- 
ography must  endow  it  with  liberal,  vitalizing,  and  theo- 
retical values.  In  scores  of  instances  it  explains  phe- 
nomena. It  is  observed,  e.  g.,  that  a  continental  margin 
abounds  in  good  harbors.  Scientific  investigations  reveal 
the  facts  that  subsidence  has  occurred,  that  the  lower  river 
valleys  have  been  drowned,  and  that  good  harbors  and 
protected  havens  are  the  results.  General  geography 
would  continue  the  logical  sequence  and  note  the  effect  of 
good  harbors  upon  commerce,  the  growth  of  commercial 
centres,  and  the  development  of  natural  resources  in  the 
surrounding  country.  It  is  the  rational  element  of  phys- 
ical geography  that  explains  and  vitalizes  geographical 
facts  that  otherwise  would  be  abstract  and  dogmatic. 
Eliminate  this  element,  and  geography  at  once  falls  back 
into  the  empiricism  of  its  early  history. 

To  summarize: 

(a)  The  essential  element  in  the  study  of  earth-science 
is  that  of  relationship. 

(b)  There  are  two  approaches  to  the  study  of  earth 
relationships,  viz.,  the  organic  or  life  side,  and  the  inor- 
ganic or  physical  side. 

(c)  General  geography  is  the  study  of  physical  controls 
and  life  responses,  not  in  a  specialized  form,  but  as  earth 
relationships. 

(d)  Physiography  is  the  study  of  physical  environ- 
ment.    It  is  the  physical  approach  to  earth  relation- 
ships. 

The  chief  function  of  physiography  is  that  of  ad- 
justing the  individual  to  his  physical  environment.  This 
adjustment  is  at  once  practical  and  theoretical.  It  is 
practical  in  that  every  life  form  or  industry  is  earth- 
determined  in  some  particular,  and  theoretical  in  the 


216  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

sense  that  a  knowledge  of  the  relationships  with  which 
the  subject  so  largely  deals  is  necessary  to  any  well  organ- 
ized intellectual  structure. 

All  life  is  characterized  by  its  environment.  Savage 
and  barbarous  peoples  adjust  themselves  almost  wholly  to 
their  unmodified  surroundings.  Civilization  is  measured 
by  its  ability  to  modify  and  adjust  nature  to  its  more 
ideal  uses.  The  increase  in  population  and  consequent 
drain  upon  natural  resources  make  imperative  finer  and 
more  intelligent  readjustments  of  earth  and  earth  prod- 
ucts for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  the  needs  of  mankind. 
National  progress  depends  upon  an  understanding  of 
earth  conditions — upon  geography.  But  earth  conditions 
are  comprehended  largely  through  physical  geography, 
e,  g.,  when  waterfalls  determine  the  locations  of  factories 
and  cities;  when  limestone  and  phosphate  rocks  attract 
a  dense  population  to  rich  farm  lands;  or  when  over- 
hanging mountains  temper  the  climate  and  determine 
the  rainfall  of  adjacent  plains. 

The  utilization  of  natural  resources  is  directly  economic 
and  indirectly  social.  The  English  landlords  fought  for 
the  retention  of  the  Corn  Laws  because  these  measures 
protected  their  wheat  from  foreign  competition.  The 
manufacturers  sought  to  repeal  them  because  cheaper 
and  better  food  meant  greater  efficiency  on  the  part  of 
their  laborers.  Hence  farm  lands,  mines,  and  raw  cot- 
ton are  translated  into  social  conditions,  and  even  into 
laws. 

The  Change  in  Text-Books. — The  early  text-books  in 
physical  geography  were  unorganized  and  scrappy.  They 
were  too  inclusive  and  their  treatment  of  topics  was  un- 
purposeful.  They  were  written  to  be  learned,  the  style 
being  dogmatic  and  sometimes  catechetical.  The  illus- 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  217 

trations  were  ideal — made  to  order — and  the  consequent 
tendency  of  these  texts  was  that  of  projecting  the  pupil's 
thought  into  some  hazy  distance.  More  fundamental  in 
their  weakness  was  the  almost  entire  lack  of  theoretical 
conception.  The  subject  seemed  to  have  been  thrown 
together  for  the  purpose  of  building  up  a  reference  book 
rather  than  for  any  well  conceived  ulterior  motive. 

With  the  advent  of  the  new  geography  there  has  evolved 
a  new  order  of  text-books.  And  these  books  are  nearly 
everything  that  the  others  were  not.  Scientific,  concrete, 
and  rational,  they  incorporate  only  materials  that  will 
relate  the  individual  most  advantageously  to  his  physical 
environment.  Scholars  have  conceived  of  environment 
as  dynamic,  stimulating,  and  controlling  life  forms,  and 
they  therefore  have  abandoned  the  passive,  teleological 
scheme  of  the  earth  as  a  predestined  and  sufficient  hab- 
itat. Our  modern  texts  have  selected  their  materials  so 
wisely,  and  with  scientific  spirit  have  elaborated  and  ar- 
ticulated them  so  well,  that  unity  and  method  are  insured. 

The  Change  in  Method  of  Presentation. — In  method  of 
presentation  the  old  empirical1  procedure  has  been  made 
to  yield  to  an  inductive,  observational,  and  problematical2 
treatment.  Manuals  have  been  prepared  to  supplement 
regular  texts  that  have  not  incorporated  suitable  problems 
and  exercises.  And  constant  reference  to  the  earth  itself, 
together  with  the  vitalization  that  comes  through  the  em- 
ployment of  wisely  selected  half-tones,  tends  to  cultivate 
the  true  spirit  of  earth  relationship. 

Material  Equipment. — Geographical  laboratories  are 
still  so  uncommon  that  many  teachers  have  never  seen  a 
good  one.  But  they  are  becoming  more  common  and 

1  Empirical  in  the  sense  of  dogmatic, 
'  Presenting  problems  for  solution." 


218  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

there  are  some  good  ones.  Serviceable  apparatus1  has 
been  adapted  to  work  in  physiography.  Mapping,  model- 
ling, graphing,  observing,  interpreting,  verifying,  and  re- 
cording are  daily  exercises  in  well-equipped  laboratories.3 
Educational  Value  of  Physiography. — The  educational 
value  of  physiography  is  never  questioned  by  those 
who  have  been  close  students  of  the  subject.  Its  con- 
tribution to  educational  development  certainly  can  be 
questioned  when  its  teaching  is  committed  to  the  hands 
of  unprepared  teachers — as  so  frequently  happens — and 
when  no  adequate  equipment  has  been  provided.  Phys- 
ics, chemistry,  biology,  and  manual  training  now  com- 
mand reasonable  material  advantages  for  the  insurance 
of  satisfactory  results.  Physical  geography,  when  prop- 
erly handled,  readily  proves  its  worth.  From  either  the 
point  of  view  of  pure  science  or  applied  science,  the  sub- 
ject seems  to  be  rich  in  educative  value.  Pure  science 
seeks  to  discover  the  truth  for  truth's  sake.  But  truth, 
when  discovered  or  apprehended,  must  be  referred  to 
proper  categories  and  rendered  scientific  through  method. 
It  has  been  found  that  earth-science  yields  to  scientific 
method  quite  as  readily  as  do  physics,  chemistry,  and 

1  The  following  pieces  of  apparatus  are  considered  necessary  to  a  well- 
equipped  laboratory:  Mercurial  and  self-recording  barometer;  aneroid 
barometer;  hygrometer  and  thermometers;  self -recording  and  maximum 
and  minimum  thermometer;  sun-board  (Goode's)  or  helior;  clinometer 
compass;  plane  table  and  alidade;  rain  gauge;  anemometer;  large  globe; 
supply  of  small  globes;  collections  of  rocks  and  minerals;  suitable  lab- 
oratory tables;  models  (the  Harvard  Geographical  Models)  and  model- 
ling tables;  maps,  charts,  pictures,  and  stereopticon ;  a  good  supply  of 
United  States  Geological  Survey  maps,  weather  maps,  coast  charts,  pilot 
charts,  etc. 

2  For  suggestions,  see  "  Practical  Exercises  in  Elementary  Meteorology," 
Ward,  Robert  DeC.,  Appendix  B;  also  "The  Equipment  of   a   Geo- 
graphical Laboratory,"  Davis,  W.  M.,  Journal  of  School  Geography, 
May,  1898. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  219 

botany.  Again  it  is  quite  likely  that  those  who  advocate 
"science  for  science's  sake"  also  recognize  values  of 
discipline.  Viewed  in  this  light,  physical  geography  cer- 
tainly ranks  well  with  other  physical  sciences  in  genuine 
educational  value.  Professor  W.  M.  Davis  has  devel- 
oped model  exercises  that  well  illustrate  scientific  method.1 

Place  in  the  Curriculum. — An  evaluation  of  physical 
geography  as  applied  science  makes  the  justification  of 
its  place  in  the  secondary  curriculum  still  easier.  Our 
newer  psychology  and  pedagogy  place  a  premium  on 
subject-matter  that  promises  to  function  in  life.  Physical 
geography  is  the  study  of  physical  environment,  and 
hence  it  touches  life  directly.  Viewed  in  this  light,  it 
seeks  not  only  to  understand  observed  phenomena  but  to 
comprehend  their  effect  upon  life.  It  so  occurs  that  we 
become  less  interested  in  the  form  and  structure  of  moun- 
tains, and  more  concerned  with  their  effect  or  influence 
on  winds,  temperature,  and  rainfall.  It  seems,  further, 
that  this  view  vitalizes  the  subject  of  discussion.  Geog- 
raphy is  dignified — even  exalted — when  ttiis  larger  con- 
ception is  gained.  For  example,  in  connection  with  the 
heavy  precipitation  in  the  Puget  Sound  region,  its  effect 
upon  the  development  of  forests,  upon  the  relatively  high 
winter  temperature,  and  upon  the  needs  and  customs  of 
the  people  who  live  in  this  region,  should  be  considered. 

It  has  been  urged  that  physical  geography  performs 
an  important  educational  function,  either  as  an  intro- 
ductory or  a  correlative  science.  These  ideas  have  had 
much  to  do  in  assigning  it  its  particular  place  in  the 
curriculum.  Usually  it  is  taught  in  the  freshman  year, 
the  argument  being  that  it  is  related  closely  to  the  bio- 
logical and  physical  sciences,  and  that  its  study  results 
1  "Geographical  Essays,"  Davis,  W.  M.,  chaps.  X  and  XI. 


220  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  the  establishment  of  an  apperceptive  system  from 
which  an  easy  transition  can  be  made  to  the  other  spe- 
cialized sciences.  The  fact  that  physical  geography  has 
not  been  included  in  the  list  required  for  college  entrance 
has  worked  to  its  disadvantage.  Teachers  quite  unpre- 
pared to  deal  with  the  subject,  inadequate  equipments, 
and  an  odd  hour,  have  been  assigned  to  physical  geog- 
raphy. Is  it  not  evident  that  those  in  charge  have  attrib- 
uted little  value  to  the  subject,  except  perhaps  as  a  sort 
of  general  forerunner  of  the  other  high  school  sciences 
which,  owing  to  the  immaturity  of  freshmen,  are  reserved 
for  the  later  years  of  the  course  ? 

Physical  geography  and  physiography  differ  only  in 
degree  of  dimcultness.  Physiography  was  recommended 
for  the  senior  year  of  the  high  school  by  the  "Committee  of 
Ten."  The  conception  that  led  to  this  recommendation 
was  that  physiography  would  serve  an  important  func- 
tion in  correlating  the  other  sciences  of  the  course.  The 
committee  realized  also  that  it  was  a  strong  study  and 
required  some  maturity  of  mind. 

Earth-Science  an  Inspiring  Subject. — A  criticism  can 
be  passed  on  either  of  the  views  just  cited  inasmuch  as 
they  seek  to  justify  the  study  of  earth-science — either  as 
physical  geography  or  physiography — on  a  theoretical 
basis.  That  is,  earth-science  may  serve  to  introduce  or 
correlate  other  subjects,  and  hence  the  inference  that  it 
does  not  possess  specific  and  intrinsic  values.  When 
well  taught,  earth-science  is  a  rich  and  inspiring  subject. 
It  possesses  in  a  high  degree  practical  and  cultural  worth. 
The  writer  does  not  care  to  measure  the  value  of  any 
subject  on  the  questionable  basis  of  disciplinary  power, 
though  even  on  this  basis  its  strong  rational  element 
would  give  physiography  high  rank.  Through  its  varied 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  221 

relationships,  it  is  endowed  with  functions,  complement- 
ary and  illuminating,  which  contribute  much  to  the 
building  up  of  stable  and  symmetrical  science  units. 

The  vacillating  attitude  that  is  often  manifested 
toward  physiography  as  a  worthy  secondary  subject,  is 
seeking  explanation.  Leading  educators  attribute  the 
indifference  to  the  fact  that  the  subject  has  figured  but 
little  in  college  entrance.1  It  does  not  follow,  however, 
that,  because  a  subject  has  long  been  recognized  for 
college  entrance,  it  is  paramount  in  educational  value. 
Subjects  are  withheld  in  this  connection  on  traditional 
grounds,  and  because  of  their  definite,  formal,  and  theo- 
retical values.  "The  sooner  colleges  give  up  the  idea 
of  controlling  high  school  courses,  the  better  it  will  be 
for  the  colleges,"  says  a  leading  educator  and  geographer. 
It  may  be  added  that  if,  irrespective  of  all  articulating 
systems,  high  school  supervisors  would  equip  and  man 
departments  of  earth-science,  and  give  the  instruction 
as  fair  an  opportunity  to  succeed  as  is  now  given  other 
science  subjects,  it  would  not  be  long  before  this  subject 
gained  general  recognition  for  its  inherent  interest  and 
its  practical  worth. 

Improvement  in  Method  of  Presentation. — In  method 
of  geographical  presentation,  great  improvement  has 
been  made  during  the  past  fifteen  years.  Teachers  now 
specialize  in  geography  and,  along  with  specialization, 
method  develops.  By  method  the  writer  has  not  in  mind 
mere  pedagogical  method  or  class-room  device,  but  that 
deeper  method  which  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  profound 

1  See  "Physiography  in  the  High  School,"  Salisbury,  R.  D.,  Journal  of 
Geography,  November,  1910;  also  "  Problems  in  the  Teaching  of  Physical 
Geography  in  Secondary  Schools,"  Fenneman,  N.  M.,  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, March,  1909. 


222  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

study  of  subject-matter  itself.  As  has  been  stated  else- 
where, general  method  in  geography,  and  also  in  phys- 
iography as  designed  for  secondary  schools,  is  the  re- 
sultant of  three  components,  viz., 

(a)  The  intrinsic  nature  of  the  subject. 

(b)  The  needs  of  the  individual  in  his  life  relationships. 

(c)  The  educative  process  through  which  the  pupil 
comes  into  possession  of  these  relationships. 

Since  our  recent  geographical  renaissance,  marked 
progress  has  been  made  in: 

(a)  The  delimitation  of  the  field  of  physiography, 
making  it  more  definite  and  coherent. 

(b)  The  infusion  of  an  acceptable  earth-philosophy 
into  the  selected  subject-matter,  thereby  contributing  to 
its  significance  and  substance. 

(c)  The  articulation  of  the  subject-matter  units  yield- 
ing a  well-organized  science. 

(d)  The  substitution  for  the  old  empirical1  and  de- 
scriptive method  of  one  that  is  concrete,  inductive,  and 
problematical. 

(e)  The  subordination  of  mere  data  and  the  accentua- 
tion of  far-reaching  principles.2 

The  examination  of  our  best  courses  in  physiography 
warrants  the  statement  that  they  are  quite  as  definite  as 
are  courses  in  other  high-school  sciences.3  Space  does 
not  permit  full  discussion  or  illustration  of  method,  but 
in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  approved  method  sets 
a  problem  for  solution;  it  guides  the  pupil  in  observing 
phenomena  and  selecting  data  either  in  the  laboratory  or 

1  Dogmatic. 

a  For  commercial  reasons  text-books  do  not  always  represent  the  best 
thought  of  our  leading  teachers. 
*  See  "Manual  of  Physical  Geography,"  Emerson,  Frederick  Valentine. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  223 

in  the  field;  it  necessitates  the  "working-over"  of  the 
concrete  data  and  the  formulation  of  a  general  princi- 
ple. With  mature  high  school  pupils  the  generalization 
may  involve  hypotheses  which  are  tested  carefully  under 
the  teacher's  guidance,  and  one  after  another  discarded 
until  one  is  found  that  seems  to  satisfy  the  conditions 
imposed  by  the  data.  The  generalization  made,  the 
pupils  are  now  assigned  new  problems  of  a  deductive 
nature  in  which,  through  field  or  laboratory  work,  new 
individual  instances  are  brought  under  the  general  rule. 
This  problem  requires  the  securing  of  data,  the  recalling 
of  the  principle,  the  making  and  verification  of  the  in- 
ference.1 

The  grade  of  work  just  suggested  should  not  be  at- 
tempted before  the  junior  or  senior  year  of  the  high 
school.*  It  seems  very  unlikely  that  two  courses — one 
preliminary  and  one  advanced — will  ever  be  recognized 
in  secondary  education.  It  is  recommended,  therefore, 
that  physiography  be  given  in  the  senior  year.  If  the 
geography  of  the  elementary  school  be  given  a  strong 
physiographic  setting,  if  excursions  and  field  trips  are 
made  to  establish  some  definite  notions,  and  if  this 
preparation  be  supplemented  by  the  study  of  physics, 
chemistry,  and  biology  in  the  high  school,  pupils  of 
senior  standing  will  be  able  to  do  a  fairly  representative 
course  in  physiography. 

The  recognition  accorded  earth-science  in  secondary 
education  has  already  been  hinted.  It  is  usually  taught 
in  the  freshman  year,  but  with  such  poor  provisions  that 
it  is  quite  unfair  to  pass  judgment  upon  its  educational 

1  See  "The  Teaching  of  Geography,"  Sutherland,  William  J.,  p.  156. 
'  If  physiography  must  be  taught  in  the  freshman  year,  the  same  gen- 
eral plan  should  be  adhered  to,  the  work  being  made  somewhat  easier. 


224  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

returns.  Just  what  the  future  may  bring  is  hard  to 
predict.  But  with  the  present  tendency  in  favor  of  ap- 
plied science,  with  the  strong  endeavor  to  close  the  gap 
between  education  and  life,  and  with  the  evolution  of 
scientific  and  functional  courses  in  physiography,  the 
coming  years  would  seem  to  augur  well. 

Need  for  Well-Prepared  Teachers. — The  great  need 
at  present  is  for  properly  prepared  teachers.  Respect 
for  physiography  will  increase  when  it  is  more  effectively 
presented,  for  then  its  educational  value  will  become  more 
apparent.  That  there  is  a  growing  interest  in  this  field 
of  study  is  evidenced  by  the  development  of  departments 
of  geography  in  our  leading  institutions.  Harvard, 
Columbia,  Cornell,  and  Chicago  universities  maintain 
departments  to  which  the  country  at  large  is  indebted  for 
incentive  and  guidance. 

Preparation  of  Teacher. — The  deficiency  of  geography 
teachers  is  mainly  on  the  academic  side.  An  adequate 
preparation  to  teach  physiography  demands  considerable 
knowledge  of  physics,  chemistry,  meteorology,  geology, 
biology,  etc.,  all  of  which  should  be  worked  over  with 
special  reference  to  this  particular  subject.  A  "feeling 
for  the  subject  is  indispensable  to  success  in  any  high 
degree,"  says  Professor  Salisbury,  and  this  attitude  comes 
only  through  prolonged  and  earnest  study  of  earth 
phenomena. 

Presupposing  a  reasonable  professional  attitude,  the 
high-school  physiography  teacher's  preparation1  should 
include: 

(a)  A  knowledge  of  the  physiographic  processes  which 
explain  our  varied  environmental  conditions. 

'See  "New  Basis  of  Geography,"  Redway,  J.  W.,  chap.  XII;  also 
"The  Teaching  of  Geography,"  Sutherland,  William  J.,  chap.  IX. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  225 

(6)  A  knowledge  of  physiographic  features  and  regions 
that  gives  the  teacher  a  reasonable  acquaintance  with  the 
world  and  enables  him  to  illustrate  readily. 

(c)  A  familiarity  with  the  best  books,  periodicals,  gov- 
ernment publications  and  other  sources  of  information, 
and  an  acquired  skill  in  their  use. 

(d)  The  ability  to  use  the  hands  well  in  performing 
experiments,  drawing,  and  modelling. 

(e)  A  thorough   knowledge  of  maps,   especially  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  maps,  atlases,  and  folios, 
with  an  appreciation  of  their  worth  in  teaching. 

(/)  A  well-organized  knowledge  of  general  geography, 
such  as  will  contribute  those  biological,  economic,  and 
social  responses  necessary  to  make  pure  physiography 
significant. 

(g)  A  love  of  nature  and  some  ability  in  interpreting 
earth  features  on  both  large  and  small  scales. 

(h)  And  lastly,  an  evolutionary  or  scientific  conception 
of  earth  and  life,  that  unifies  and  enriches  geographical 
facts  and  inspires  the  appreciation  of  man. 

Promise  of  Future  Progress. — There  seem  to  be  no 
valid  psychological  reasons  or  practical  difficulties  that 
should  retard  the  higher  development  and  more  general 
recognition  of  worthy  courses  in  physiography  in  Ameri- 
can schools,  comparable  to  the  work  in  German  and 
English  schools.  The  changing  conceptions  of  educa- 
tion and  educational  values  seem  to  give  promise  of  future 
progress  in  earth-science.  The  general  awakening  to 
its  possibilities  will  encourage  geographical  study  and 
continue  to  demonstrate  the  value  and  function  of  physi- 
ography as  a  secondary  subject. 


CHAPTER   XI 
ENGLISH 

JOSEPH  VILLIERS  DENNEY,  A.M. 

DEAN    OF   THE  COLLEGE   OF    ARTS,   PHILOSOPHY,   AND    SCIENCE,    AND 
PROFESSOR    OF    ENGLISH,    OHIO    STATE   UNIVERSITY 

Triumph  of  Democratic  Spirit  in  Education. — The  most 
impressive  fact  in  the  educational  movement  of  the  last 
forty  years  is  the  triumph  of  the  democratic  spirit.  This 
spirit  expresses  a  conviction  that  at  the  proper  time  and 
in  due  course,  every  young  American  shall  have  free 
access  to  every  kind  of  knowledge  and  discipline  that  is 
suited  to  his  needs,  tastes,  and  ambitions.  Hence,  to 
an  extent  hardly  dreamed  of  as  possible  two  generations 
ago,  science,  political  ideas,  literature,  and  the  arts,  both 
fine  and  useful,  have  come  into  the  secondary  programme 
of  studies.  Much  of  this  new  spirit  has  centred  in  the 
study  of  English,  since  English  culture  expresses  the  so- 
cial level  of  the  community  and  of  the  individual  citizen.1 
Studied  as  a  tool  for  mastery,  English  contributes  to  social 
efficiency.  Studied  as  a  fine  art,  it  reveals  the  laws  of 
all  the  arts  which  are  also  the  laws  of  living.  Studied  as 
a  body  of  literature,  it  reveals  in  beautiful  forms  the  ideals 
— patriotic,  social,  domestic,  religious — which  the  race  has 
cherished  in  the  past  and  which  democracy  needs  now 

'Baker,  G.  F.,  "  Address  on  English,"  Washington,  D.  C.,  December, 
1902. 

226 


ENGLISH  227 

more  than  ever  before.1  The  various  purposes  of  the 
study  as  usually  stated — (i)  to  enable  people  to  under- 
stand the  expressed  thought  of  others,  (2)  to  enable 
people  to  express  their  own  thoughts  effectively,  (3)  to 
cultivate  appreciation  of  good  literature3 — all  point  to 
one  unifying  purpose — the  creation  of  universal  intelli- 
gibility, on  high  levels  of  thought,  among  the  multitudes 
who  are  to  be  self-governing. 

Unifying  Principle  of  Method. — This  comprehensive 
and  unifying  purpose  in  the  different  English  disciplines 
is  matched  by  a  unifying  principle  of  method  that  has 
been  supplied  by  psychology.3  Certain  activities  of 
mind  that  English  study  calls  into  play  prove  to  be 
constants;  they  are  the  same  (though  in  varying  degrees 
and  proportions)  for  all  kinds  of  work  with  the  mother 
tongue.  They  are  alike  essential  to  reading,  spelling, 
grammar,  composition. 

Four  Things  Necessary  in  Reading. — In  order  really 
to  read,  what  must  take  place  ?  First  of  all,  there  must 
be  observation;  the  reader  must  look  until  he  sees — sees 
the  thought  of  sentence,  paragraph,  chapter,  book — in 
its  entirety.  The  thought  is  one  thing  and  reading  is  a 
sensing  of  this  one  thing.  Observation  must  continue, 
therefore,  until  there  is  perception  of  the  thought. 
Secondly,  the  learner  must  discriminate;  he  must  ob- 
serve until  he  can  select  between  important  and  unim- 
portant, between  subject  and  predication,  between  prin- 
cipal and  modifier,  and  he  must  be  able  to  pick  out  these 
things.  Thirdly,  he  must  take  subject  and  predication 
out  of  the  mass  of  modifying  elements  and  must  con- 

1  McMurry,  C.  A.,  "  Special  Method  in  English  Classics." 

*  "  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,"  p.  86. 

1  Lewes,  "  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature." 


228  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

template  them  by  themselves  in  order  to  test  the  truth  of 
the  statement  they  make;  and  if  he  finds  that  they  make 
an  incongruous  assertion,  he  must  observe  them  anew 
in  their  original  setting  in  order  to  get  them  right.  Lastly, 
he  must  be  able  to  restate  the  thought  in  terms  of  his 
own  experience. 

Spelling  and  Grammar. — The  same  activities  are  called 
into  play  in  learning  to  spell.  The  trouble  with  most  poor 
spellers  is  that  they  will  not  look  long  enough  to  see,  or, 
if  they  are  ear-spellers,  will  not  listen  attentively  enough 
to  hear;  will  not  select  the  particular  difficulty  of  a  trouble- 
some word  for  special  attention;  will  not,  finally,  make 
the  recombination  test  in  other  words  involving  the  same 
difficulty.  In  parsing  there  must  be,  likewise,  the  scru- 
tiny of  the  sentence  until  it  divides  itself  into  subject  and 
predicate,  into  phrases  and  clauses  standing  in  certain  re- 
lations; then  the  choice  and  abstraction  of  the  particular 
construction  undergoing  study,  and,  finally,  the  recom- 
bination of  this  construction  in  an  original  sentence. 

Original  Composition. — Pre-eminently  in  original  com- 
position, however  elementary  or  advanced,  there  must  be 
observation  or  study  up  to  the  point  of  perception  or 
insight;  there  must  be  the  choice  of  things  to  say  and  of 
things  to  omit,  in  view  of  the  purpose  in  writing;  there 
must  be  the  abstraction  of  the  things  selected  in  order 
that  they  may  be  contemplated  by  themselves,  and,  if 
necessary,  supplemented  by  a  new  observation;  and 
th£re  must  be  the  recombination,  the  writing  or  speak- 
ing of  the  whole.  Original  composition,  however,  makes 
far  greater  demands  upon  these  activities  than  do  spell- 
ing, reading,  and  grammar.  For  in  original  composi- 
tion, the  observation,  selection,  abstraction,  recombi- 
nation, must  be  first-hand,  whereas,  in  the  others,  there 


ENGLISH  229 

need  be  only  a  rediscovery  and  reproduction  of  the  results 
of  these  activities  in  the  final  work  of  others.1 

The  Constructive  Imagination. — Now  these  activities 
that  underlie  all  work  with  English  are  what  the  modern 
psychologist  means  when  he  speaks  of  "the  constructive 
imagination."  They  suggest  a  fundamental  methodology 
for  English  instruction.  More  than  this,  the  cultivation  of 
these  activities  is  what  is  most  needed  in  order  to  obtain 
the  ends — moral,  aesthetic,  social,  practical — of  all  secon- 
dary school  instruction.  They  are  needed  in  the  work 
of  the  world  if  .that  work  is  to  be  well  done.  We  easily 
translate  these  constituents  of  imagination  into  terms  of 
art,  morals,  social  efficiency,  citizenship.  "  Clear  seeing 
and  truthful  reporting"  is  the  final  word  in  all  of  the 
arts  and  sciences.  Rightly  understood,  these  two  com- 
prise all  that  can  be  done  in  either  realm  of  achievement. 
Artist  and  scientist  are  credible  only  as  they  have  insight 
or  vision  and  report  with  truth.  Moreover,  the  laws  of 
construction  which  the  reader  discovers  in  a  literary 
masterpiece,  and  which  he  attempts  to  observe  in  his 
own  work  as  far  as  he  may,  are  the  laws  of  all  of  the  arts 
and  crafts.  In  leading  readers  and  writers  to  detect  and 
obey  these  laws,  the  teacher  of  English  is  developing 
the  art  instinct  in  the  young.  Further,  these  laws  have 
also  a  direct  application  in  the  moral  realm,  a  meaning 
so  obvious  that  no  youth  can  miss  it.  Selection  is  the 
principle  of  choice,  abstraction  is  reflection  and  judgment, 
recombination  in  writing  and  speaking  is  the  effort  to 
make  perceived  truth  or  beauty  intelligible,  pleasurable, 
serviceable  socially;  unity  is  integrity,  accuracy  is  truth- 
telling,  method  is  law  and  order,  due  proportion  is  re- 

1  "Contributions  to  Rhetorical  Theory,"  No.  Ill,  Bulletins  of  the 
University  of  Michigan. 


230  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

strain!  and  temperance.  Our  terms  are  the  terms  of  art, 
but  they  embody  meanings  that  are  highly  significant  for 
right  living  and  good  citizenship. 

In  Germany,  where  these,  the  ultimate  ends  of  language 
and  literature,  have  long  been  perceived  by  teachers  of 
the  mother-tongue,  importance  and  dignity  have  been 
gained  for  even  the  minutest  and  most  mechanical  parts 
of  language  work.  The  small  things  get  their  true  value 
and  their  due  attention  because  of  their  known  relation 
to  the  great  ends  which  they  are  to  subserve — right 
ideals,  personal  power,  good  habits — in  a  word,  social 
efficiency.  In  America  this  clear  perception  of  organic 
relationship  between  letters  and  living  has  been  slower 
in  coming.  But  each  increase  in  the  time-allotment  for 
English  in  the  secondary  curriculum,  each  enrichment 
of  the  content  of  the  course,  has  been  due  to  some  better 
conception  of  the  ultimate  value  of  English  studies  to 
society.1 

Various  Ideals  of  English  Study. — The  first  ideal  was 
grammatical  correctness,  and  so  long  as  that  ideal  pre- 
vailed the  single  year  of  grammatical  analysis,  with  oc- 
casional "rhetoricals"  and  essays,  was  sufficient.  The 
next  ideal  was  rhetorical  correctness.  It  found  expres- 
sion in  the  Harvard  requirement  of  1874  that  English 
composition  and  a  few  pieces  of  English  literature  should 
be  studied,  the  end  proposed  being  "accurate  methods 
of  thought  and  expression."  Meanwhile,  the  growth  of 
commercial  courses,  expressing  the  dissatisfaction  of  the 
business  element  with  the  traditional  curriculum,  kept 
alive  the  ideal  of  grammatical  correctness.  The  ideal 
of  immediate  practical  utility  embodied  in  the  commer- 

1  Herford,  "  The  Bearing  of  English  Studies  upon  the  National  Life," 
The  English  Association,  June,  1910. 


ENGLISH  231 

cial  courses  meant  a  rapid  development  in  letter-writing, 
especially  business  correspondence,  and  greater  atten- 
tion than  ever  to  the  necessary  details  of  grammar, 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  form.  The  present  ideal  of 
social  efficiency  began  to  emerge  after  1879,  when  the 
New  England  Association  made  an  attempt  to  secure  a 
uniform  scheme  of  requirements  for  admission  to  col- 
leges. This  attempt  was  the  beginning  of  a  protracted 
consideration  of  educational  values,  including  English, 
and  the  outcome  was  a  permanent  commission  (1885), 
the  English  conferences  soon  after,  and  the  "Committee 
of  Ten"  appointed  by  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion in  1892. 

American  educators  were  profoundly  impressed  and 
influenced  by  the  declaration  of  the  present  Emperor  of 
Germany,  early  in  his  reign,  which  began  in  1888,  in 
favor  of  a  secondary  curriculum  for  Germans  that  should 
give  pre-eminence  to  the  study  of  German  language  and 
literature,  German  mythology  and  history,  German  art 
and  culture.  This  utterance  emboldened  those  Ameri- 
cans who  realized  that  a  higher  end  than  correctness 
must  be  proposed  for  English  in  the  schools.  In  all  of 
the  investigations,  discussions,  conferences,  and  course- 
making  that  have  since  taken  place,  there  has  been  accu- 
mulating evidence  of  the  clearer  perception  of  the  social 
value  of  English. 

Tests  Applied. — This  test  has  sometimes  been  narrowly 
applied,  as  in  the  exclusively  utilitarian  demand  of  the 
business  man,  in  the  fixed  reading  lists  of  the  colleges 
(until  recent  years),  in  certain  vocational  demands  upon 
English  teachers  in  manual  training  and  agricultural 
high  schools,  in  the  premium  put  upon  American  as 
distinguished  from  English  literature.  But  these  have 


232  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

served  to  open  discussions  that  have  invariably  led  to  a 
less  partial  view. 

Results  Attained  by  English  Study. — The  more  im- 
portant results  for  English  ideals  growing  out  of  the  dis- 
cussions especially  of  the  last  twenty  years  may  now  be 
briefly  stated: 

1.  Correctness,  whether  grammatical  or  rhetorical,  is 
to  be  sought  in  all  rational  ways,  but  it  is  not  the  chief 
end  of  English  instruction.     It  comes  as  fast  as  the  social 
need  for  it  is  realized.     The  real  effort  for  it  begins  when 
the  youth  conceives  of  himself  as  a  member  of  a  highly 
conventional  society,  and  of  good  language  as  a  requisite 
for  winning  favorable  consideration  for  himself.     Like 
bad  manners,  bad  English  is  penalized  by  society,  and 
nowhere  so  relentlessly  as  in  business  circles.     The  finest 
manners  and  language  arise  from  an  instinctive  desire 
to  please  and  not  to  offend.     Correctness  must  come 
from  the  social  motive.     The  teacher  of  correctness  must 
supply  the  motive.1 

2.  The  end  of  English  study  being  social  efficiency,  the 
form  in  which  an  idea  is  to  be  expressed  is  functional. 
The  end  to  be  achieved,  the  purpose  in  view,  the  person 
addressed,  the  social  situation  involved,  combine  to  de- 
termine what,  in  a  given  case,  the  form  shall  be.    Rhetoric 
is  adaptation  of  means  to  end.2 

3.  English  is  almost  the  only  opportunity  available  in 
the  secondary  school  for  acquainting  pupils  with  the 
fundamental  laws  of  art,  which  are  also  the  laws  of  moral 
living.     These  laws  are  to  be  apprehended  by  analysis 
of  the  masterpieces  of  literature;   they  are  to  be  applied 
by  the   individual   in  his  composition-practice.      They 

1  Thurber,  C.  H.,  "Five  Axioms,"  School  Review,  6:7. 

3Genung,  "Principles  of  Rhetoric";  Spencer,  "Philosophy  of  Style." 


ENGLISH  233 

are  ineffective  unless  the  attempt  is  made  thus  to  ap- 
ply them. 

4.  Most  important  of  all  is  the  perception  of  the  social 
function  of  literature  which  is  to  be  thought  of  by  the 
secondary  teacher  mainly  as  a  contact  with  ideas,  rather 
than  as  a  form  study,  mainly  as  a  revelation  in  beautiful 
form  of  the  aspirations  and  ideals  of  the  race.  A  specific 
benefit  for  the  individual  is  also  to  be  sought  from  the 
study  of  literature,  a  benefit  experienced,  according  to 
temperament,  as  consolation,  inspiration,  aesthetic  pleas- 
ure, or  sense  of  growth,  but  invariably  thought  of  by  the 
teacher  in  terms  of  character  building.  The  idealism  of 
literature  also  tends  to  prevent  too  narrow,  too  coarse, 
too  "practical"  a  view  of  "social  efficiency." 

Improvement  in  Text-Books. — With  the  growth  of  so- 
cial aims  in  English  teaching,  an  improved  text-book 
presentation  of  the  subject  appeared.  Originally,  rhet- 
oric, as  a  topic  in  philosophy,  was  presented  in  the  form 
of  numerous  definitions  supported  by  reasoning  and  il- 
lustrated by  examples.  So  many  varieties  of  things,  es- 
pecially figures  of  speech,  were  catalogued  that  the  term 
"botany  rhetoric"  was  used  to  describe  this  class  of 
books.  When  the  ideal  of  "correctness"  came  in,  these 
books  gave  way  to  a  different  kind  of  texts,  which  were 
repositories  of  all  the  sorts  of  errors  in  English  that  writers 
ever  are  guilty  of.  With  the  better  understanding  of 
the  final  ends  to  be  achieved,  a  new  crop  of  texts  ap- 
peared. These  emphasized  constructive  rather  than  crit- 
ical power,  and  offered  practice  in  writing  a  larger  unit 
than  the  single  sentence  and  a  smaller  unit  than  the 
formal  essay.  The  single  sentence  does  not  long  con- 
tinue sufficient  for  expressing  thought;  the  long  essay  is 
practically  unmanageable  in  the  class  room.  The  para- 


234  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

graph,  then,  became  the  object  of  study  and  effort,  with 
the  sentence  of  secondary  interest.  The  social  aspect 
of  composition  work  is  brought  within  the  reach  of  the 
pupil's  comprehension  in  the  later  texts  by  requiring  him 
to  write  for  a  specified  audience,  in  a  specified  character, 
and  for  a  specified  purpose.  Thus,  composition  writing 
has  become  in  the  school  the  same  thing  as  it  is  in  the 
newspaper  office  or  elsewhere  in  the  world — the  pro- 
duction of  a  body  of  intelligible  discourse;  to  be  corrected 
and  revised  in  all  of  its  details  before  being  given  any 
form  of  publication,  but  not  to  be  written  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  correction  and  revision;  rather  to  be  written 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  ideas. 

The  inference  which  these  later  texts  have  drawn 
from  the  doctrine  of  specific  disciplines  is  that  theme 
writing  in  schools  should  not  be  confined  to  one  species — 
the  book  review — but  should  enter  all  of  the  fields  of 
human  interest  within  range  of  the  secondary  student's 
experience.  Both  in  choice  of  topics  and  in  kinds  of 
writing  attempted,  great  variety  should  appear.  Hence 
the  substitution  of  many  short  and  varied  themes  for  a 
few  long  ones.  Recognizing  composition  as  an  art,  these 
texts  have  not  hesitated  to  utilize  pictures,  sculpture, 
architecture,  and  music,  as  well  as  literature,  both  as 
models  for  structural  analysis  and  as  affording  subjects 
of  interest  in  new  fields.  But  they  utilize,  far  more,  sub- 
jects drawn  from  personal  experience.  These  lie  near- 
est at  hand.  These  offer  the  opportunity  of  bringing  the 
student  in  contact  with  many  situations  which  he  will 
have  to  deal  with  later  in  life.  These  help  to  make  com- 
mon life  interesting. 

Improvement  in  Methods  of  Teaching  Composition. — 
Refinement  of  method  in  conducting  composition  work 


\ 
ENGLISH  235 

has  kept  pace  with  improved  text-books.  As  the  real 
character  of  composition  as  an  art  is  appreciated,  writ- 
ing (or  oral  composition)  is  the  usual  employment  of  the 
class  hour,  rather  than  reciting.  In  order  that  writing 
may  be  done  within  artistic  limitations,  it  is  preceded  by 
prescribed  observation  or  reading,  note  taking,  arrange- 
ment of  data,  and  tentative  outlining.  In  the  class  there 
is,  first,  oral  composition,  each  reporting  his  discoveries 
for  the  benefit  of  all;  then  a  common  outline  is  made, 
and,  with  this  to  guide,  all  write,  or  each  speaks  in  his 
turn.  The  teacher  who  is  overburdened  with  themes 
will  utilize  oral  composition  often,  but  no  real  teacher  of 
composition  will  ever  be  without  a  set  of  themes.  The 
mechanical  features  of  writing  are  taught  by  an  induc- 
tive study  of  models.  Some  of  them  are  best  taught  in 
the  individual  correction  of  themes.  Widely  prevalent 
error  is  dealt  with  in  the  class  hour,  usually  by  work  at  the 
blackboard.  Incentives  to  care  in  grammar  and  idiom, 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  other  details  are  (a)  self-inter- 
est— the  desire  to  be  esteemed  for  social  competency  and 
to  escape  the  social  penalties  of  trivial  blundering;  (6) 
altruism — the  desire  to  save  the  time  of  other  people,  to 
be  a  help  rather  than  a  hindrance;  and  (c)  pride  in  the 
mother-tongue,  which  implies  the  desire  to  create  better 
public  standards  of  which  a  purer  speech  is  indicative. 
The  warfare  upon  errors  of  speech  is  waged  in  many  ways 
and  by  the  use  of  many  devices.  Whenever  possible,  the 
co-operation  of  all  teachers  in  the  school  is  enlisted  in 
this  warfare.  The  conviction  grows  stronger  everywhere, 
however,  that  the  true  object  of  correction  is  to  teach  self- 
correction.  Hence  the  private  consultation  hour,  with  its 
opportunity  for  individual  instruction  and  for  supplying 
right  motives,  has  become  a  necessity,  especially  in  large 


236  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

schools.  The  class  room  is  the  chief  place  of  publication. 
The  teacher  reads  commendable  parts  of  many  themes, 
and  sometimes  gives  A's  theme  to  B  merely  because  it 
is  interesting.  Publication  in  some  sort  is  an  absolute 
necessity;  no  one  can  write  well  unless  he  is  sure  of  a 
reader  or  hearer.  Communication,  not  mere  expression, 
is  the  reason  for  writing.  Publication  in  the  class  room 
offers  also  an  opportunity  for  judicious  criticism,  the 
writer  remaining  unknown  to  his  classmates,  but  this 
open  criticism  must  never  convey  to  the  writer,  though 
unnamed,  the  feeling  of  discouragement  and  defeat.  Crit- 
icism should  be  sympathetic  and  constructive. 

Improvement  in  Methods  of  Teaching  English  Classics. 
— Refinement  of  method  in  the  study  of  English  classics 
has  also  been  rapid  and  steady.  Minute  textual  criti- 
cism no  longer  monopolizes  the  notes  of  school  editions. 
In  the  later  editions,  a  very  great  increase  is  noticeable 
in  the  queries,  notes,  and  references  that  call  attention  to 
literary  values,  both  the  aesthetic  and  the  ethical,  and  to 
the  larger  features  of  structure.  As  in  the  composition 
work,  a  new  type  of  teacher  has  come;  a  teacher  who 
tries  to  understand  the  specific  needs  of  the  adolescent 
pupil  and  tries  to  use  literature  advisedly  in  satisfying 
some  of  these  needs;  a  teacher  who  is  aware  of  the  im- 
pulses to  altruism,  to  religion,  self-sacrifice,  adventure, 
and  hero-worship,  that  crowd  in  upon  youth  of  high 
school  age;  the  distracting  tendencies  to  passive  enjoy- 
ment of  nature,  solitude,  and  the  inner  life,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  ambition  for  active  service  and  glorious 
achievement,  or  enthusiasm  for  "society,"  on  the  other. 
In  prescribing  reading,  especially  home  reading,  the 
teacher  is  spiritual  physician.  It  is  axiomatic  in  English 
teaching  that  a  compelling  motive  for  every  new  effort 


ENGLISH  237 

should  be  supplied— one  motive  selected  out  of  several 
that  are  always  plausible.  The  kind  of  pleasure  to  be 
expected  from  contact  with  a  new  classic  should  accord- 
ingly be  announced,  whether  it  be  pleasure  in  admirable 
characters,  unexpected  incident,  mood,  fresh  ideas,  nature 
description,  imagery,  music,  or  insight  into  the  value  and 
meaning  of  specific  situations  in  real  life.  Purpose  is  a 
large  word  in  the  teaching  of  English. 

In  the  class  room  itself  conditions  favorable  to  under- 
standing and  appreciation  must  be  supplied.  If  the 
teacher  is  a  good  reader,  or  there  are  good  readers  in  the 
class,  oral  interpretation  is  often  helpful,  as  difficult  pas- 
sages are  encountered.  If  there  are  good  singers,  some 
of  the  lyrics  that  have  been  set  to  music  should  be  sung. 
As  many  of  the  themes  of  literature  are  also  themes  of 
painting  and  sculpture,  worthy  reproductions  of  the  mas- 
terpieces in  these  arts  should  be  sought.  The  portfolios 
of  pictures  gradually  collected  by  the  teacher  to  accom- 
pany the  study  of  the  English  classics  will  be  of  constant 
aid  in  creating  right  conditions.  Gayley's  "Classic 
Myths  in  English  Literature"  should  be  known  and  read 
by  every  youth  in  the  land. 

The  Class  Hour. — The  class  hour  presents  the  real  test 
of  teaching.  Shall  it  be  used  for  examination?  or  for 
stimulus  ?  Few  teachers  attend  to  both  with  equal  facility. 
Usually,  if  a  teacher  succeed  in  one,  he  is  indifferent  to 
the  other.  To  offset  personal  bias,  it  is  wise  to  leave  a 
large  place  in  the  class  hour  for  individual  reports.  The 
pupils  have  the  floor,  while  the  teacher  is  generous  in 
his  incidental  outgivings.  The  work  is  social  and  co- 
operative, each  pupil  reporting  for  the  benefit  of  all  on  a 
topic  or  a  question  previously  assigned.  The  topics  and 
questions  deal  with  the  principal  thoughts  and  senti- 


238  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ments,  with  structural  analysis,  with  conspicuous  points 
of  style  and  beauty.  They  should  include  (a)  questions 
that  will  ensure  intellectual  understanding,  (&)  questions 
that  will  lead  to  appreciation,  (c)  questions  that  use  the 
classics  in  order  to  help  the  pupil  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  life.1  A  few  questions  are  better  than  many;  no 
question  should  lack  definite  purpose,  and  each  should 
be  assigned  with  some  reference  to  individual  aptitude; 
this,  because  it  is  necessary  that  the  pupil  succeed,  after 
reasonable  effort,  in  doing  commendable  work.  The 
feeling  of  growth  in  understanding,  in  appreciation,  in 
competence,  is  better  than  all  criticism  and  correction. 
The  pupil's  own  crude  inferences  from  the  reading  as- 
signed are  better  than  his  reproductions  of  ready-made 
opinions  from  the  critics.  The  teacher  will  prove  his 
humanism  by  offering  one  question  hour  on  each  classic, 
when  he  does  the  reciting  as  his  pupils  present  their  diffi- 
culties. Confidence  secured,  all  things  are  possible. 

Miscellaneous  Student  Activities. — Recognizing  the 
wider  social  relations  of  his  work,  the  good  teacher  of 
English  will  not  be  indifferent  to  the  student  activities 
about  him,  in  the  literary  and  debating  clubs,  the  read- 
ing clubs,  the  dramatic  club,  and  the  school  publication. 
These  require  his  active  interest,  his  occasional  presence, 
his  constant  advice,  if  they  are  to  be  of  value.  Walking 
clubs  can  be  utilized  as  observation  clubs  in  the  English 
work.  Visits  to  the  library,  with  explanation  of  the  use  of 
catalogues  and  reference  books,  are  useful.  At  least  one 
large  high  school  has  a  Round  Table  of  teachers  and  older 
pupils  for  the  discussion  of  the  serious  problems  of  life. 

1  Collections  of  these  questions  have  been  published.  The  most  recent 
are:  Thomas,  "How  to  Teach  English  Classics";  Marsh  and  Royster, 
"Teachers'  Manual  for  the  Study  of  English  Classics." 


ENGLISH  239 

Meeting  the  Needs  of  the  Individual. — The  present 
problems  of  English  teaching  arising  from  the«call  for 
vocational  education,  from  the  demands  of  the  commercial 
interests,  from  the  college  requirements,  essentially  repeat 
the  old  problem  of  the  elective  system.  The  teacher, 
who  sees  clearly  the  final  purposes  of  English  instruction, 
makes  easy  concessions  to  special  demands  merely  by 
prescribing  theme  work  and  out-of-class  reading  that  are 
deemed  suitable  for  those  concerned,  without  sacrificing 
in  the  least  degree  the  discipline  that  is  vital  to  all. 

Preparation  for  Teaching. — Preparation  for  teaching 
English  in  the  high  school  implies  a  broad  college  course 
rather  than  high  specialization  in  English  itself.  The 
wider  the  teacher's  acquaintance  and  sympathy  with  the 
different  fields  of  scholarship  and  human  endeavor,  the 
better  for  him  and  for  his  pupils.  In  the  field  of  English 
he  must,  of  course,  be  widely  read  in  the  various  periods 
and  he  should  not  neglect  recent  and  current  literature. 
He  should  know  English  and  American  history  in  their 
relation  to  literature.  By  mastering  at  least  one  language 
and  literature  besides  English  he  has  sure  grounds  of 
comparison.  He  perceives  the  permanence  of  literary 
themes  and  the  contemporary  nature  of  literary  imagery. 
By  adding  to  this  some  knowledge  of  Old  and  Middle 
English,  he  equips  himself  for  a  right  understanding  of 
modern  English  idiom.  If  he  knows  the  history  and 
principles  of  education,  he  may  save  himself  from  repeat- 
ing some  of  the  blunders  of  the  past.  Since  success  in 
his  work  depends  upon  establishing  relations  of  confi- 
dence he  needs  more  than  other  teachers  to  cultivate  a 
liking  for  young  people.  Of  prime  importance  to  him 
are  tolerance,  patience,  enthusiasm,  a  good  voice,  and  a 
capacity  for  humor. 


240  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Need  for  More  Teachers. — The  chief  obstacle  to  a 
fuller  realization  of  the  great  purposes  of  English  in  the 
secondary  school  is  the  failure  of  school  authorities  to  pro- 
vide a  sufficient  number  of  English  teachers.  Allowance  is 
not  made,  as  it  should  be  made,  for  the  theme  reading,  the 
consultation  hour,  the  personal  attention  which  the  Eng- 
lish teacher  feels  it  his  duty  to  give  to  student  activities.1 

Continuity  Desirable. — The  work  of  the  high  school  in 
English  should  be  continuous  from  the  first  year  through 
the  last.  In  any  one  semester  each  pupil  should  get 
all  of  his  English  instruction  from  one  teacher  and  not 
from  several.  This  permits  correlations  especially  be- 
tween composition,  English  classics,  and  literary  history, 
that  would  otherwise  be  difficult.  It  permits,  at  times, 
when  the  need  is  seen,  a  concentration  of  attention  upon 
a  single  element  of  English — grammar,  for  instance — and 
keeps  all  of  the  elements  in  right  relation  to  reading  and 
composition,  the  two  main  lines  of  effort. 

General  Scheme  of  Work. — Usually  during  the  first  two 
years  the  time  is  evenly  divided  between  these  two  lines. 
In  the  last  two  years  the  proportion  is  one  for  compo- 
sition to  four  for  classics.  In  the  earlier  years  the  reading 
prescribed  follows,  in  a  general  way,  the  scheme  of  the 
composition  work,  narration  and  description  receiving 
the  lion's  share  of  attention;  exposition,  however,  not 
being  omitted.  Later  the  study  of  Burke,  Washington, 
Webster,  and  Lincoln  eventuates  in  the  writing  of  argu- 
mentative essays  and  the  preparation  of  a  debate. 

1  A  special  investigation  of  the  physical  problems  of  English  compo- 
sition teaching  is  now  proceeding  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  of 
the  English  Section  of  the  Central  Division  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association,  Professor  E.  M.  Hopkins,  chairman.  A  preliminary  report 
of  this  committee  was  issued  in  April,  1911,  by  the  Graduate  Magazine 
Press  of  the  University  of  Kansas. 


ENGLISH  241 

Selection  of  Reading. — In  selecting  reading  for  high 
school  pupils,  it  is  already  well  understood  that  the  chief 
principle  of  choice  should  be  the  known  needs  of  the 
adolescent.  These  are  now  pretty  accurately  deter- 
mined and  described.  What  is  lacking  in  pedagogical 
practice  at  present,  is  an  agreement  on  the  one  chief 
purpose  for  which  each  classic  should  be  taught.  Each 
classic  will  lend  itself  readily  to  several  plausible 
purposes.  The  present  need,  from  the  view-point  of  the 
secondary  teacher,  is  a  programme  of  student  readings 
arranged  to  cover  the  very  numerous  and  widely  diversi- 
fied interests  of  the  secondary  pupil,  in  an  orderly  way; 
each  piece  of  reading  in  its  turn  to  subserve  a  single  one 
of  these  numerous  interests  and  all  together  to  cover  the 
field  in  at  least  a  rudimentary  way.  To  this  end,  two 
things  are  recognized  as  necessary:  (i)  Of  the  numer- 
ous benefits — ethical,  aesthetic,  or  practical — to  be  de- 
rived from  contact  with  each  classic,  the  principal  one 
must  be  agreed  upon  more  or  less  arbitrarily  in  order 
that  each  teacher  may  know  what  to  work  for.  (2) 
There  must  be  a  long  period,  say  ten  years,  of  experi- 
mentation in  many  schools  operated  under  different 
conditions,  as  Professor  Hanus  has  suggested  for  the  arith- 
metic question  of  the  elementary  schools.  Such  a  wide- 
spread experimentation  will  discover  (i)  whether  a  given 
classic  is  being  taught  with  the  best  purpose  in  view,  and 
(2)  whether  it  has  been  properly  placed  in  the  course. 
Much  of  this  experimenting  has  already  been  done. 
Many  of  the  classics  have  now  found  their  most  advan- 
tageous place  in  the  secondary  curriculum.  A  study  of 
numerous  high  school  programmes  of  reading  in  the 
English  classics  reveals  a  surprising  amount  of  agree- 
ment among  programme  makers  who  have  been  work- 


242  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ing  independently.  In  the  following  programme  only 
those  classics  are  included  concerning  which  a  tacit  agree- 
ment has  evidently  been  reached  by  many  schools.  In 
view  of  the  chief  purpose,  the  need  and  the  interest 
of  the  pupil,  other  considerations  follow  as  corollaries, 
(a)  Variety  in  reading-matter  is  provided  for  each  year. 
(6)  The  idea  of  concentrating  attention  on  a  single 
literary  type,  form,  or  species,  is  frankly  abandoned. 
(c)  No  thought  of  a  historical  or  philosophical  arrange- 
ment is  entertained,  (d)  The  English  teacher  is  to  sac- 
rifice thoroughness  to  continuity  of  interest.  («)  While 
obvious  correlations  with  composition  are  not  to  be  neg- 
lected, correlation  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  leading  aim. 
(/)  Books  offered  for  home  reading  are  in  general  easier 
and  lighter  than  those  adopted  for  class  study;  they  are 
drawn  from  various  fields  of  interest  and  they  include 
recent  writers.  It  should  be  added  that  the  number  of 
books  studied  in  class  varies  in  different  schools  from 
four  to  twelve  each  year. 

First  Year.— In  class:  A  Ballad  Book;  Scott's 
"Ivanhoe,"  "Lady  of  the  Lake";  Irving's  "Sketch 
Book";  Homer's  "Odyssey"  in  translation;  Shake- 
speare's "Julius  Caesar"  or  "Merchant  of  Venice." 
Outside  reading  with  brief  essays  recorded  in  note- 
books: Burroughs,  Warner,  Stevenson's  "Treasure 
Island";  Macaulay's  "Lays";  Hawthorne's  Short 
Stories;  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech  (memorized). 

Second  Year. — In  class:  George  Eliot's  "Silas  Mar- 
ner";  Goldsmith's  "Vicar";  Lowell's  "Sir  Launfal"; 
Tennyson's  "Idylls";  Irving's  "Life  of  Goldsmith"; 
Burns's  Poems;  Carlyle  on  Burns;  Gray's  "Elegy"; 
Shakespeare's  "Midsummer-Night's  Dream."  Outside 
reading:  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress";  Browning's 


ENGLISH  243 

Narrative  Poems;  Holmes's  "Last  Leaf,"  "Chambered 
Nautilus"  (memorized);  Byron's  "Prisoner  of  Chillon"; 
Stevenson's  "Travels  with  a  Donkey." 

Third  Year. — In  class:  Shakespeare's  "As  You 
Like  It";  Palgrave's  "Golden  Treasury,  i,  2,  3,  4"; 
Coleridge's  "Ancient  Mariner";  Milton's  "Minor 
Poems";  Macaulay  on  Milton  and  Addison;  "The 
DeCoverley  Papers";  Blackmore's  "Lorna  Doone"; 
Emerson's  Essays;  Bacon's  Essays.  Outside  reading: 
Dryden's  "Odes,"  "Palamon  and  Arcite";  Pope's 
"Rape  of  the  Lock";  Stockton's  "Rudder  Grange"; 
London's  "Call  of  the  Wild." 

Fourth  Year. — In  class:  Shakespeare's  "Macbeth"; 
Burke's  Conciliation  Speech;  Washington,  Webster, 
Lincoln;  DeQuincey's  "Joan"  and  "English  Mail 
Coach";  Dickens's  "Tale  of  Two  Cities";  Thackeray's 
" Henry  Esmond."  Outside  reading:  Schurz  on  Lincoln; 
Churchill's  "The  Crisis";  Stevenson's  "Virginibus  Pue- 
risque";  Howells's  "A  Doorstep  Acquaintance,"  Farces; 
Poems  of  Poe,  Whitman,  and  Kipling. 


CHAPTER  XII 

PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING 
DWIGHT  E.  WATKINS,  A.M. 

DEPARTMENT   OF    PUBLIC   SPEAKING,    KNOX    COLLEGE 

The  claims  of  public  speaking  and  voice  training  to  a 
place  in  the  high  school  programme  of  studies  are  quite 
generally  recognized,  but,  strange  to  say,  very  rarely  satis- 
fied. This  inconsistency  is  in  large  measure  due  to  the 
tyranny  of  tradition  and  the  crowded  condition  of  our 
programmes  of  study,  but  its  origin  also  lies  in  the  in- 
ability of  administrators  to  find  satisfactory  instructors. 
The  shallow,  volatile  elocutionist,  who  betrays  his  calling 
by  the  way  he  says  "  Good  morning,"  and  whose  mention 
always  provokes  an  indulgent  smile,  has  found  little  favor 
with  those  in  charge  of  our  public  instruction.  Fortu- 
nately this  condition  is  being  remedied  by  the  more  solid 
courses  offered  in  public  speaking  by  the  special  depart- 
ments of  our  leading  universities  and  a  few  of  the  small 
colleges;  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  almost  any 
high  school  can  find  a  special  teacher,  abundantly  quali- 
fied for  the  task,  at  the  stipend  of  the  regular  faculty 
member. 

Value  of  Public  Speaking  and  Voice  Training  as  a 
High  School  Subject. — The  value  of  the  subject  from  a 
theoretical  point  of  view  is  scarcely  ever  questioned.  The 
arguments  in  its  favor  as  a  high  school  subject  are: 

244 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     245 

(1)  It  is  a  very  practical  study.     Almost  every  high 
school  student  will  at  some  time  find  himself  in  a  posi- 
tion where  he  will  wish  to  address  himself,  in  a  more  or 
less  formal  way,  to  his  fellows.     At  such  times  a  thorough 
training,  even  in  the  elements  of  public  speech,  will  prove 
of  inestimable  value.     He  will  at  least  be  able  to  face 
his  audience  without  distressing  fear.     He  will  be  heard. 
He  will  not  be  so  awkward  as  to  jeopardize  the  success  of 
his  undertaking.     His  thoughts  will  progress  in  logical 
order  and  his  emotions  will  neither  be  entirely  suppressed 
nor  yet  allowed  to  run  riot.     To  the  boy  or  girl  going 
directly  into  life,  these  accomplishments  are  almost  a  ne- 
cessity; and  to  the  one  going  on  to  a  higher  institution,  they 
will  be  of  all  the  more  value  because  acquired  while  young, 
for  he  can  use  them  directly  in  improving  the  quality  of 
his  work  in  the  higher  institution,  or,  having  these  attain- 
ments already  out  of  his  way,  can  devote  himself  to  other 
pursuits  or  can  carry  his  attainments  to  a  higher  degree 
of  perfection. 

(2)  If  excellence  in  the  art  is  to  be  attained,  it  must  be 
gained  largely  in  the  period  of  youth  falling  within  the 
latter  stages  of  adolescence,  while  the  impulses  to  growth 
are  strong  and  habits  have  not  yet  become  set. 

(3)  The  subject  must  be  studied  before  the  profes- 
sional school  is  reached,  for,  with  the  increasing  de- 
mands placed  upon  the  curriculums  of  these  institutions, 
it  is  evident  that  instruction  in  public  speaking,  like  most 
of  the  instruction  in  English,  must  be  relegated  to  the 
preparatory  school;  and  this  means  that  in  many  cases, 
where  the  student  does  not  take  the  bachelor's  degree 
before  entering  the  professional  school,  the  high  school 
is  the  only  possible  place  for  acquiring  his  training. 
With  the  six-year  course  it  is  very  evident  that  the  high 


246  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

school  must  provide  some  means  for  practice  in  the  art. 
That  the  student  in  the  professional  school  needs  ability 
in  speaking  scarcely  needs  argument.  Although  oratory 
in  the  courts  is  said  to  be  declining,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that  there  is  as  great  need  for  clear  reasoning  and  vivid 
imagination  to-day  as  ever,  and,  outside  of  his  routine 
practice,  the  lawyer  who  has  the  accomplishment  of 
pleasing  public  address  certainly  has  the  advantage. 
Among  the  clergy,  the  mere  fact  that  the  average  holder 
of  a  pulpit  must  address  his  parishioners  twice  each 
Sunday  makes  it  plain  that  oratory  still  holds  a  place. 
In  journalism,  always  inseparably  connected  with  poli- 
tics, the  public  speaker  has  a  wonderful  prestige,  while 
in  medicine  and  dentistry  the  capable  public  speaker  will 
always  have  the  advantage  accruing  to  a  man  who  can 
appear  to  good  advantage  before  gatherings  of  his  fellows. 
In  business  the  public  speaker  is  becoming  more  and 
more  of  a  necessity.  In  these  days,  when  most  of  the 
larger  business  undertakings  are  in  the  hands  of  boards 
of  directors,  there  must  of  compulsion  be  some  one  to 
present  plans  forcibly  and  clearly  to  these  bodies  of  men. 
Social  Value  of  Public  Speaking. — The  social  value  of 
public  speaking  is,  of  course,  its  highest.  It  tends  di- 
rectly to  make  the  student  a  more  potent  force  in  his  en- 
vironment. The  subjects  lending  themselves  most  easily 
to  treatment  are  naturally  those  dealing  with  national, 
State,  or  municipal  welfare,  and  familiarity  with  these 
themes  cannot  but  inspire  a  patriotic  feeling.  Moreover, 
the  young  men  who  have  once  tasted  the  joys  of  pub- 
lic address  will  never  be  quite  willing  to  give  them  up, 
and  in  any  crisis,  by  reason  of  their  familiarity  with  pub- 
Ik  affairs  and  ready  ability  in  speaking,  they  will  stand 
forth  as  staunch  defenders  of  the  best  policies.  The 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     247 

opportunity  for  teaching  effective  civics  is  nowhere  better 
offered  than  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  public 
speaking.  To  teach  that  trickery  and  falsehood  in  a  stu- 
dent's speech  are  most  deplorable,  and  in  the  end  unsuc- 
cessful, and  to  cultivate  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  oppro- 
brium fitly  heaped  upon  such  practices  in  political  fields  is 
certainly  a  great  part  of  the  work  of  the  teacher  of  public 
speaking,  and  this  ethical  value  alone  would  be  enough 
to  warrant  extensive  space  in  the  curriculum.  Again,  by 
the  constant  appearance  of  the  student  before  his  mates, 
there  springs  a  desire  for  a  strong,  erect,  powerful  physical 
appearance.  Strong  lungs  and  an  oratorical  presence 
come  to  have  an  important  place  in  the  student's  ideals. 
Moreover,  he  desires  to  possess  power,  he  seeks  to  con- 
trol, and  thus  becomes  a  more  dominant  personality. 

^Esthetic  Possibilities  of  Subject. — The  aesthetic  possi- 
bilities of  the  department  are  best  developed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  literature.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  oral  interpretation  can  do  fully  as  much  as  philo- 
logical research  toward  true  taste  in  letters.  It  ought 
not  to  be  possible  for  a  class  to  spend  half  a  semester 
upon  "Macbeth"  and  not  read  a  single  line  aloud,  al- 
though this  case,  which  came  under  the  author's  notice, 
only  too  clearly  marks  a  tendency.  The  true  test  of  a 
student's  grasp  of  "  Evangeline,"  as  one  writer  has  sug- 
gested, is  "not  whether  he  can  give  the  exact  date  of  the 
deportation  of  the  Acadians,  but  whether  his  eyes  grow 
moist  at  the  death  of  Gabriel." 

The  external  beauties  of  poetic  construction,  it  goes 
without  saying,  must  be  given  oral  rendition  in  order 
to  be  appreciated.  Rhyme,  rhythm,  and  melody  mean 
nothing  to  the  ear  that  is  not  trained  to  their  delights. 
Likewise  the  depth  of  tone  and  color  that  goes  with 


248  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

deep  passion,  the  broken  melody  of  ecstatic  joy  and  tri- 
umph, the  daintiness  of  manipulation  that  accompanies 
delicacy  of  conception — these  evidences  of  true  assimi- 
lation can  only  be  secured  through  oral  interpretation. 

Training  of  the  Voice. — The  training  of  the  speaking 
voice  is  certainly  greatly  neglected  in  our  high  schools 
to-day.  The  voices  of  our  young  people  are  strangely 
irresponsive  to  emotion.  Our  training  is  too  intellect- 
ual. Centuries  of  repression  in  the  class  room  have 
rendered  it  a  place  almost  unfit  for  the  best  study  of 
literature.  We  have  sought  too  long  to  eliminate  emo- 
tion from  our  mental  activities.  The  naked  bones  of 
logic  must  be  clothed  with  the  flesh  and  blood  of  feeling. 
In  listening  to  a  class  engaged  in  reading  poetry,  one  is 
peculiarly  struck  by  the  atrophy  of  the  finer  vocal  attri- 
butes. These  should  be  restored.  In  their  use  the  stu- 
dent will  build  up  a  more  attractive  personality.  To 
express  kindness,  reverence,  and  gladness  means  build- 
ing these  emotions  into  the  student's  life,  not  only  in- 
creasing his  own  enjoyment,  but  making  him  of  more 
interest  and  service  to  his  fellows.  It  is  true  that  in 
securing  this  freedom  of  emotion  the  teacher  must  drive 
with  a  free  rein,  which  does  not  lead  to  the  perfect  de- 
corum of  the  purely  intellectual  class  room,  but  in  the 
hands  of  an  able  teacher  this  freedom  will  be  infinitely 
more  productive  of  telling  results.  We  are  beginning  to 
understand  also  that  the  training  of  the  emotions  is  im- 
portant in  determining  conduct,  and  no  better  place  can 
be  found  to  do  a  large  part  of  this  work  than  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  literary  masterpieces. 

Training  of  the  Will. — The  discipline  of  the  will  is  no 
small  attainment  to  be  gained  from  the  practice  given  in 
the  study  of  public  speaking.  The  student  soon  learns 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     249 

that  if  he  is  to  control  his  audience  there  must  be  an 
exhibition  of  his  powers  of  determination.  Earnestness 
must  soon  come  to  his  rescue  when  he  finds  his  school- 
mates getting  the  better  of  him  as  he  stands  on  the 
platform.  On  no  occasion  must  he  discipline  himself 
more  rigidly.  He  must  guard  insistently  against  dis- 
tracting circumstances  in  his  audience;  he  must  keep 
his  mind  strictly  upon  his  theme;  he  must,  at  the  start, 
at  least,  take  care  about  his  enunciation,  his  bearing, 
his  general  attitude;  and  all  these  things,  and  many  more, 
must  be  attended  to  while  his  pulses  are  beating  at  an 
unusually  high  rate,  while  his  cheeks  are  flushed,  and 
while  his  voice,  to  say  nothing  of  his  knees,  trembles 
violently  by  reason  of  his  elevation  upon  the  platform. 
He  must  not  fail!  He  must  go  through  or  meet  dis- 
grace! Such  opportunities  for  cultivating  the  will  can 
scarcely  be  found  elsewhere. 

Improvement  in  Instruction. — In  some  form  public 
speaking  has  always  been  recognized  in  the  school  cur- 
riculum. The  great  mistake  has  been  made  in  supposing 
that  almost  anybody  could  teach  it.  Friday  afternoon 
speaking,  exercises  on  special  days,  commencement  pro- 
grammes, "  rhetoricals,"  chapel  services,  and  literary  so- 
cieties have  always,  in  varying  degrees  of  success,  catered 
to  the  demand  for  skill  in  the  art  of  speaking.  These 
public  occasions  still  offer  probably  the  best  field  for 
actual  practice,  but  they  are  now  being  supplemented  by 
systematic  instruction  in  the  class  room,  and  by  special 
expert  training  before  each  public  appearance.  As  yet 
there  are  few,  if  any,  text-books  suitable  to  put  into  the 
hands  of  high  school  students,  but  there  are  plenty  of 
excellent  manuals  from  which  the  teacher  can  glean  valu- 
able systems  and  helpful  material. 


250  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Occasions  for  Public  Speaking. — Devices  for  supplying 
occasions  for  the  public  use  of  speech  have  always  played 
an  important  part  in  instruction  in  public  speaking, 
this  obviously  for  the  reason  that  there  are  few  real  op- 
portunities for  the  high  school  student  to  appear  pub- 
licly. The  debate,  either  between  schools,  or  classes, 
or  factions  in  the  same  school,  probably  ranks  first. 
This  is  true,  doubtless,  because  the  debate,  of  all 
rhetorical  forms,  is  the  least  removed  from  life  condi- 
tions. "It  seems  the  most  useful  because  the  most 
used  form  of  speech."  It  cultivates,  too,  the  ability  to 
think  and  speak  upon  the  spur  of  the  moment,  which 
makes  for  naturalness,  in  opposition  to  the  fixed  and 
careful  artificiality  too  apt  to  creep  into  other  forms. 
Debates  were  formerly  carried  on  with  one  team  from 
each  school  or  faction.  To-day,  however,  the  tendency 
is  to  develop  two  teams,  one  upholding  the  affirmative 
side,  and  one  the  negative.  These  meet  in  simultane- 
ous debates.  This  method  avoids  all  unfairness  in  the 
balance  of  the  question,  for  each  school  or  faction  has 
one  team  representing  each  side,  and  if  victory  is  latent 
in  the  statement  of  the  question  each  side  will  be  ac- 
corded a  victory.  This  method  also  obviates  the  rather 
undesirable  transportation  of  large  delegations  of  stu- 
dents from  one  school  to  another,  for  each  school  has 
enough  to  do  in  supporting  its  own  team  at  home.  It 
also  doubles  the  effectiveness  of  the  work,  for  there  are 
in  this  case  six  debaters  interested,  whereas  under  the 
old  system  there  were  but  three.  It  facilitates,  too,  work 
upon  both  sides  of  the  question,  which  was  always  hard 
to  obtain  under  the  old  system. 

A  modification  of  the  dual  debate  is  found  in  what  is 
known  as  the  triangular  system,  in  which  three  schools 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     251 

participate,  one  year  all  the  affirmatives  visiting,  and  the 
next  year  all  the  negatives.  Thus  each  school  debates 
two  others,  and  may,  as  a  result,  win  both  debates,  win 
one  and  lose  one,  or  lose  both.  This  triangular  method 
has  in  one  case,  at  least,  been  expanded  to  include  nine 
schools,  making  a  triple  triangle  and  enabling  the  cham- 
pionship to  be  decided  practically,  although  not  absolutely, 
in  two  debates,  the  second  debate  involving  no  change  of 
sides  or  further  preparation,  often  a  troublesome  feature 
in  the  larger  leagues  under  the  old  system.  Pentangular 
leagues  have  also  been  organized. 

Next  to  the  debate,  as  a  practical  device,  comes  the 
oratorical  contest,  in  which  each  contestant  writes  a 
speech,  submitting  it  to  judgment  on  thought  and  com- 
position, and  afterward  delivers  it,  being  judged  with  the 
others  upon  the  effectiveness  of  delivery,  the  two  sets  of 
marks  being  collated  in  order  to  determine  the  winner. 
This  has  the  advantage  of  the  debate  in  that  it  tends 
to  more  care  in  the  purely  rhetorical  characteristics  of 
speech;  grammar,  punctuation,  diction,  rhetoric,  are  all 
rendered  much  better  by  this  sort  of  a  contest.  There 
has  been  a  feeling  that  under  this  system  the  most  effec- 
tive speaker  often  loses,  and  that  it  is  impossible  to  accu- 
rately judge  a  speech  in  the  manuscript  without  the  per- 
sonality behind  it,  but  it  is  probable  that  whatever  is  lost 
in  accuracy  in  this  regard  is  gained  in  the  work  expended 
by  the  contestants  upon  the  manuscripts,  which  would 
be  of  a  much  more  careless  nature  were  thought,  com- 
position, and  delivery  all  judged  at  the  time  of  delivery. 

Another  device,  more  closely  connected  with  litera- 
ture, but  nearly  always  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
of  public  speaking,  is  the  dramatic  club.  The  control 
of  this  organization  requires  a  high  degree  of  diplomacy 


252  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

upon  the  part  of  the  teacher,  who  must  guide  and  inspire 
to  the  highest  in  dramatic  literature  in  the  face  of  much 
mediocre  work  upon  the  commercial  stage.  The  power 
of  the  dramatic  instinct,  however,  is  one  not  to  be  de- 
spised, and  when  carefully  supervised  can  be  made  sub- 
servient to  great  achievement.  It  is  doubful  sometimes 
whether  the  strain  of  carrying  a  part  in  a  three  or  four 
act  play  is  a  desirable  thing.  It  is  certain  that  there  are 
numerous  nervous  breakdowns  and  failures  in  scholar- 
ship brought  about  by  dramatic  presentations.  A  rem- 
edy, perhaps,  lies  in  taking  only  a  scene  or  two  from  the 
plays  studied  by  the  club,  or  in  presenting  one-act  plays 
not  lasting  over  a  half-hour.  This  plan  by  no  means 
prevents  the  entertainment  offered  by  the  dramatic  club 
from  lasting  a  full  evening;  for  two  or  three  scenes,  or 
short  plays,  may  be  presented  the  same  evening  by  dif- 
ferent groups  of  students. 

In  all  the  work  there  is  a  tendency  to  get  away  from 
exhibition  merely  to  something  more  sane  and  of  a 
higher  order.  Mere  imitation,  or  the  representative  side 
of  the  art,  is  losing  ground.  The  struggle  now  is  for 
the  manifestive.  Delsartian  curves,  like  Spencerian  flour- 
ishes, have  largely  disappeared.  To-day  we  tend  toward 
the  direct  and  business-like,  eliminating  anything  which 
might  attract  attention  to  the  medium  of  expression. 

Status  of  Instruction  in  Public  Speaking. — There  are 
at  present  no  statistics  as  to  the  exact  status  of  instruc- 
tion in  public  speaking  in  high  schools.  Not  more  than 
three  years  ago  the  author  secured  some  data  by  rather 
wide  correspondence,  but  no  definite  conclusions  could 
be  drawn  except  that  there  was  a  very  chaotic  condi- 
tion of  affairs  throughout  the  country.  The  require- 
ments differed  from  entirely  compulsory  to  entirely  elec- 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     253 

tive  regulations,  and  from  one  recitation  a  week  for  four 
years  to  a  recitation  every  day  for  a  semester.  In  reality 
there  was  probably  no  such  discrepancy  in  the  actual 
work  done,  as  much  of  the  instruction  might  be  given 
outside  of  the  regular  curriculum  through  the  devices 
mentioned  above.  The  employment  of  a  special  teacher 
would  prove  no  guide,  for  often  some  teacher  of  Eng- 
lish would  be  doing  the  work  although  no  mention  were 
made  of  it.  Developments  will,  no  doubt,  lead  to  the 
employing  of  a  special  teacher  to  look  after  the  public- 
speaking  activities  of  the  students  and  to  give  systematic 
instruction  in  the  subject.  On  the  more  aesthetic  side 
the  larger  schools  may  supplement  the  work  of  the  reg- 
ular teacher  of  literature  by  the  work  of  a  teacher  spe- 
cially trained  in  oral  interpretation.  It  is  certain  that 
more  respect  is  being  paid  year  by  year  both  to  foren- 
sics  and  interpretation. 

At  the  1910  meeting  of  the  Illinois  Association  of 
Teachers  of  English,  a  committee,1  appointed  by  the 
association,  investigated  the  entire  subject  of  oral  Eng- 
lish in  the  high  schools  of  Illinois,  and  reported  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions,  which  were  taken  up  one  by  one  and 
adopted: 

/.  Every  Illinois  high  school  should  make  some  pro- 
vision for  training  its  pupils  in  the  proper  use  of  the 
English  language. 

II.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  all  high  school  teachers, 
of  whatsoever  subjects,  should  lay  especial  emphasis  upon 
clearness  and  correctness  in  reading  and  reciting. 

'This  committee  consisted  of  Professor  Thomas  H.  Briggs,  of  the 
Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School;  Professor  John  M.  Clapp,  of  Lake 
Forest  College;  Principal  W.  F.  Mozier,  of  the  Ottawa  High  School; 
Principal  F.  D.  Thompson,  of  the  Springfield  High  School;  Professor 
£.  M.  Halliday,  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 


254  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

///.  At  least  one-fifth  of  the  high  school  work  in  Eng- 
lish should  be  devoted  to  oral  composition  and  reading 
aloud,  with  particular  reference  to  the  correction  of  faults 
in  articulation,  pronunciation,  and  voice  quality. 

IV.  It  is  desirable  that  teachers  of  English  should 
themselves  be  fitted  to  give  instruction  in  oral  English, 
though  there  is  no  serious  disadvantage  in  leaving  such 
work  to  a  special  teacher,  provided  that  ft  be  closely  corre- 
lated to  the  work  in  written  composition  and  literature. 

V.  It  is  recommended  that  in  all  institutions  fitting 
teachers  to  give  instruction  in  high  school  English  courses 
in  reading  and  speaking  be  required  as  a  prerequisite  to 
endorsement  for  positions. 

VI.  This  association  is  in  hearty  sympathy  with  other 
public-speaking  activities  within  the  school,  such  as  de- 
bates, declamation  and  oratorical  contests,  dramatic  per- 
formances, literary  society  work,  etc.,  provided  always 
that  they  be  under  the  supervision  of  teachers  and  that 
they  be  conducted  sanely  and  without  artificiality  or  af- 
fectation. 

VII.  It  is  believed  that  inter-high  school  contests,  in- 
cluding debates  and  oratorical  and  declamation  contests, 
present  grave  dangers,1  but  that,  if  carefully  superintended 
and  strictly  limited  in  number,  they  may  be  found  to  an- 
swer the  double  purpose  of  affording  training  in  public 

1  As  throwing  special  light  upon  this  clause,  the  fact  should  be  men- 
tioned that  the  committee  sent  out  to  all  the  high  school  principals  in 
the  State  the  following  question:  "Has  your  experience  with  inter- 
high  school  debating  been  such  as  to  lead  you  to  favor  it?"  Ninety- 
four  principals  replied.  Of  these,  forty-six  answered  "Yes";  twenty- 
seven  reported  no  experience;  five  expressed  themselves  as  in  doubt; 
and  nine  answered  "No."  "It  will  thus  be  seen,"  says  a  member  of 
the  committee,  "that  high  school  principals,  in  so  far  as  they  have  ex- 
pressed any  opinion,  are  decided'y  in  favor  of  debates  between  high 
schools." 


PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING     255 

speaking  and  lightening  the  over-emphasis  likely  to  be 
placed  upon  athletic  contests. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher. — The  preparation  of  the 
teacher  is  a  very  important  factor  in  determining  the 
value  of  work  in  public  speaking.  Nothing  less  than  a 
college  course  should  be  demanded  in  the  way  of  gen- 
eral education.  In  addition  the  teacher  should  have 
specialized  in  the  work  offered  by  the  public-speaking 
department  in  his  college  or  university.  He  might  very 
well,  although  it  is  not  necessary,  have  taken,  in  addi- 
tion, some  special  training  in  one  of  the  dozen  special 
schools  of  oratory,  so-called,  located  in  various  large 
cities.  The  pre-eminent  requisites  of  personality  for  the 
teacher  are,  first,  a  vivid  imagination,  then  a  kind  and 
helpful  disposition;  and  to  these  must  be  added  an 
unusual  capacity  for  work.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this 
last  requirement  will  soon  be  unnecessary,  but  at  pres- 
ent it  is  absolutely  essential.  The  tendency  of  adminis- 
trators is  to  demand  class  instruction  during  the  regular 
hours  of  the  session  and  then  drill  for  public  appear- 
ances after  hours — drill  on  orations  and  discussions  for 
chapel  exercises  immediately  after  school,  and  work  with 
the  contestants  and  with  the  dramatic  club  in  the  even- 
ing. It  is  either  a  wonderfully  strong  teacher  of  ex- 
pression, or  else  a  worthless  one,  who  can  close  the  year 
without  severe  nervous  exhaustion.  With  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  subject  in  the  high  school  curriculum, 
doubtless  these  tendencies  will  disappear,  but  they  are 
a  serious  fault  in  the  present  system. 

The  Future  of  Public  Speaking. — Public  speaking  will 
always  hold  a  prominent  place  in  the  work  of  the  high 
school,  and  this  in  an  increasing  degree.  Much  of  the 
work  in  the  subject  will  be  done  through  the  activities 


256  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

lying  outside  of  the  class  room,  but  this  does  not  mean 
that  it  will  not  be  under  careful  system  and  supervision. 
Text-books  for  class  instruction  will  undoubtedly  ap- 
pear, and  with  them  will  come  more  rigid  and  uniform 
requirements  and  a  general  improvement  in  the  instruc- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
LATIN 

ARTHUR  TAPPAN  WALKER,  PH.D. 

HEAD    OF   LATIN   DEPARTMENT,   UNIVERSITY   OF    KANSAS' 

In  the  general  questioning  of  the  value  of  secondary 
subjects,  Latin  has  perhaps  received  more  than  its  fair 
share  of  criticism.  If  so,  the  too  great  vigor  of  attack 
has  been  chiefly  a  reaction  against  the  too  great  claims 
that  used  to  be  made  for  the  study — claims  which  were  a 
natural  heritage  from  the  time  when  Latin  was  not 
merely  the  chief  educational  instrument,  but  a  necessary 
means  of  communication  between  scholars.  A  more  rea- 
sonable ground  for  a  part  of  the  criticism  has  been  the 
failure  of  the  friends  of  Latin  to  agree  upon  the  pur- 
poses of  the  study.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  criticism 
from  without  and  disagreement  within,  the  study  of 
Latin  has  increased  wonderfully  in  the  last  twenty  years. 
The  latest  statistics  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  are  given  in  the  report  of  1910,  p.  1141,  and 
cover  the  years  from  1890  to  1910,  inclusive.  Of  the 
total  number  of  pupils  in  both  public  and  private  high 
schools  and  academies,  33.62  per  cent  were  studying 
Latin  in  1889-90;  the  percentage  of  Latin  students  in- 
creased steadily  till  it  reached  50.29  in  1898-9,  a  more 
rapid  increase  than  was  shown  by  any  other  subject  dur- 
ing those  years;  since  then  the  percentage  has  remained 
almost  stationary,  and  was  49.59  in  1909-10.  Only 

257 


258  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

English,  mathematics,  and  history  are  being  studied  by 
a  greater  number  of  secondary  pupils.  The  total  number 
of  secondary  pupils  studying  Latin  is  now  considerably 
more  than  half  a  million. 


Aims  of  Latin  Study. — The  aims  of  Latin  study  need 
a  careful  consideration,  not  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  justifying  its  pursuit  by  this  vast  number  of  pu- 
pils, but  because  the  teacher's  choice  of  methods  and 
of  text-books  must  be  governed  by  his  aims.  Unfortu- 
nately Latin  teachers  do  not  always  agree  in  the  state- 
ment of  their  aims,  perhaps  do  not  always  formulate 
them  to  themselves.  But  fortunately  the  disagreement 
is  less  serious  than  it  sometimes  seems,  for  all  agree  that 
Latin  serves  several  valuable  ends,  and  the  disagreement 
is  as  to  which  is  the  most  valuable  and  most  to  be  em- 
phasized in  teaching.  If  agreement  on  this  point  is  im- 
possible, it  is  at  any  rate  all- important  that  each  teacher 
shall  decide  for  himself  what  his  own  aims  shall  be,  and 
that  he  shall  adapt  his  methods  to  the  furtherance  of 
those  aims. 

The  Ability  to  Read  Latin  not  the  Chief  Aim.— The 
most  obvious  aim  of  Latin  study  is  the  ability  to  read 
Latin.  While  it  would  be  absurd  to  deny  that  this  is 
and  must  be  a  practical  goal  in  all  Latin  teaching,  it 
cannot  be  maintained  that  it  is  the  chief  goal,  except 
perhaps  for  teachers  in  strictly  preparatory  schools,  the 
majority  of  whose  pupils  are  to  take  examinations  for  en- 
trance to  college.  Comparatively  few  of  the  more  than 
half  million  now  studying  Latin  are  intending  to  enter 
college,  still  fewer  intend  to  elect  Latin  in  college.  For 


LATIN  259 

the  great  majority  the  statement  is  grievously  defective. 
On  the  theoretical  side  it  merely  removes  the  difficulty 
one  step;  for  the  value  of  the  goal  itself  is  not  necessarily 
apparent.  The  ability  to  read  Latin  is  worth  something; 
but  is  one  warranted  in  spending  years  in  the  endeavor  to 
acquire  it?  And  on  the  practical  side  there  is  the  im- 
mense difficulty  that  the  pupil  does  not  and  cannot  learn 
to  read  Latin  with  any  such  measure  of  success  as  he 
can  attain  in  the  study  of  a  modern  language.  This 
unmodified  statement,  that  the  aim  of  Latin  teaching 
must  be  to  teach  the  art  of  reading  Latin,  is  the  basis  of 
much  of  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  results  of  classical 
study.  For  the  natural  inference  is  that,  since  Latin  is 
studied  for  the  purpose  of  reading  it,  and  since  the  pupils 
do  not  learn  to  read  it,  either  the  study  of  Latin  should 
be  given  up  altogether,  or  its  literature  should  be  studied 
in  translation,  or  some  radical  change  in  the  method  of 
teaching  it  should  be  adopted. 

Disciplinary  Value. — The  chief  purpose  of  the  Latin 
teacher  must  be  to  inculcate  habits  of  accurate  thinking. 
This  may  not  be  the  most  important  reason  for  including 
Latin  in  the  curriculum,  since  other  subjects,  too,  give 
discipline;  but  it  is  the  first  point  to  consider  when  one  is 
deciding  between  rival  methods  or  rival  books.  This  state- 
ment assumes,  of  course,  that  no  one  longer  holds  to  the 
too  hasty  generalization  that  the  results  of  formal  disci- 
pline cannot  be  transferred  from  one  study  to  another  or 
the  affairs  of  every-day  life;  though  it  is  admitted  that 
to  no  one  knows  just  the  conditions  for  such  transference. 
Assuming,  then,  the  possibility  of  training  the  mental 
powers,  the  Latinist  claims,  not  indeed  that  Latin  affords 
the  only  means  of  mental  training,  nor  that  the  study 
of  Latin  by  itself  gives  a  complete  and  well-rounded  train- 


260  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ing,  but  that  it  does  afford  the  most  satisfactory  training 
in  a  certain  kind  of  reasoning  for  pupils  of  the  second- 
ary school  age.  Every  sentence  requires  the  exercise  of 
keen  observation,  not  only  in  the  apparently  simple 
matter  of  word  forms  and  inflection  endings,  but  in  the 
more  subtle  and  complicated  indications  of  sentence 
meaning  afforded  by  word  order  and  by  other  means. 
Every  sentence  requires  a  series  of  correct  inferences  as 
to  the  relations  indicated  by  the  endings  and  the  order. 
Every  sentence  requires,  too,  that  the  results  of  the 
pupil's  reasoning  shall  be  at  once  expressed  in  the  best 
English  at  his  command.  These  three  processes — accu- 
rate observation,  the  drawing  of  correct  inferences  from 
the  facts  observed,  the  expression  of  the  results,  are  es- 
sential processes  in  mental  training.  Both  theoretical 
considerations  and  the  experience  of  the  past  show  that 
for  these  processes  Latin  furnishes  material  eminently 
suited  to  pupils  of  the  secondary  school  age. 

Value  for  the  Pupil's  English. — A  second  great  aim  of 
Latin  teaching  must  be  a  better  understanding  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  and  a  training  in  its  use.  The  great  concern 
for  the  improvement  of  the  pupil's  English,  manifested 
alike  by  school  authorities  and  by  the  general  public,  has 
caused  a  very  great  expansion  in  the  number  of  English 
teachers  and  in  the  time  devoted  to  the  study.  Yet  there 
seems  to  be  no  decrease  in  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  Eng- 
lish used  by  graduates  of  our  secondary  schools.  It  seems 
not  impossible  that  the  great  emphasis  laid  upon  the  work 
of  the  English  department  has  worked  harm,  indirectly, 
by  leading  to  a  division  of  labor  and  to  a  shirking  of 
responsibility  by  other  departments.  Perhaps  the  true 
solution  of  the  difficulty  will  be  found  in  some  method 
of  making  all  departments  share  the  responsibility  for 


LATIN  261 

the  English  teaching.  The  department  of  Latin,  more 
than  any  other,  has  the  opportunity  of  co-operating  with 
the  English  department.  Latin,  in  fact,  can  perform  a 
part  of  the  task  better  than  the  English  department  itself. 
The  study  benefits  the  pupil's  English  both  by  enabling 
him  to  understand  better  its  vocabulary  and  sentence 
structure  and  by  requiring  of  him  constant  practice  in 
English  expression. 

Probably  no  one  can  state  with  any  accuracy  the  pro- 
portion of  English  words  which  are  derived,  directly  or 
indirectly,  from  the  Latin.  It  has  been  estimated  at 
sixty  per  cent.  Even  this  does  not  do  full  justice  to  the 
help  given  by  Latin;  for  the  words  derived  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  are  the  common  words,  those  which  are  already 
familiar  to  the  pupil,  while  those  derived  from  the  Latin 
are  the  longer,  less  familiar,  more  technical  words.  It  is 
true  that  most  of  these  words  have  undergone  modifica- 
tions of  meaning  in  their  passage  from  Latin  to  English; 
but  the  key  to  their  history  and  meaning  is  found  in  the 
Latin.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  Latin  teacher  should 
seek  to  clarify  the  pupil's  ideas  of  word-meaning  by  em- 
phasizing word-derivation. 

Less  obvious,  but  very  real,  is  the  effect  of  studying 
the  grammar  and  the  structure  of  the  Latin  sentence. 
It  is  true  that  English  sentence  structure  is  very  slightly 
affected  by  that  of  Latin,  so  that  the  study  of  the  one  does 
not  directly  explain  the  other.  But  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  any  pupil  ever  yet  gained  an  understanding  of 
the  English  grammatical  system  until  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  forced  him  to  think  about  grammar 
and  to  notice  the  differences  between  the  foreign  and 
the  English  systems.  Modern  languages  are  too  similar 
to  English  in  their  grammatical  systems  to  be  of  great 


262  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

value  in  this  respect.  The  Latin  teacher  has  opportu- 
nities denied  to  the  English  teacher,  and  he  fails  in  his 
duty  if  in  teaching  Latin  grammar  he  does  not  teach 
English  grammar  also. 

Still  more  important  is  the  training  in  English  expres- 
sion which  is  afforded  by  the  necessity  of  constant  trans- 
lation into  English.  Here  is  no  mere  opportunity  of  the 
Latin  teacher,  which  he  may  embrace  or  not,  as  he  likes; 
whether  for  good  or  for  evil  he  does  inevitably  teach 
English  of  some  sort.  No  school  authority  has  the  moral 
right  to  employ  a  Latin  teacher  who  is  either  unable  or 
unwilling  to  teach  English  well.  The  opportunity  of 
the  Latin  teacher  is  even  greater  than  that  of  the  English 
teacher,  in  some  respects:  the  amount  of  English  com- 
position which  the  pupil  must  prepare  in  translation  is 
greater  than  the  amount  ordinarily  required  in  the  English 
class;  the  ideas  which  he  has  to  express  in  English  are 
more  elevated  than  those  which  will  come  to  his  unaided 
mind,  and  are  presented  to  him  in  wellnigh  perfect 
form;  he  cannot  shirk  the  expression  of  any  idea  which 
seems  difficult  to  him,  as  he  can  in  original  composition; 
since  there  can  be  no  question  of  what  he  is  trying  to  say, 
the  teacher  can  hold  him  more  easily  to  a  careful  weighing 
of  English  synonyms  and  to  a  recasting  of  his  sentences 
to  bring  out  shades  of  meaning  and  of  emphasis.  Occa- 
sional exercises  in  written  translation  are  most  helpful  in 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  care  in  translation.  It 
should  be  possible  to  make  an  arrangement  with  the 
English  department  by  which  such  exercises  may  be 
accepted  and  criticised  by  the  English  teachers,  now  and 
then,  in  place  of  the  written  work  which  they  regularly 
require  of  their  classes.  Such  an  arrangement  will  ob- 
viate the  objection  of  lack  of  time  for  written  transla- 


LATIN  263 

tions,  and  will  ensure  harmony  and  co-operation  in  the 
English  teaching  of  the  two  departments. 

Literary  and  Historical  Values. — A  third  group  of 
values  has  to  do  with  the  contents  of  the  books  read, 
chiefly  on  the  historical  and  the  literary  sides.  The 
student  gains  a  detailed  knowledge  of  certain  historical 
events,  both  interesting  in  themselves  and  important 
because  of  the  frequent  references  to  them  in  English 
literature.  And  he  inevitably  becomes  familiar  with  a 
small  fraction  of  the  world's  great  literature.  The  value 
of  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  Latin  literature  is  out  of 
all  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  that  literature;  for  English 
literature  is  permeated  by  Latin  literature  to  a  degree 
which  none  but  a  classical  student  can  appreciate. 

But  if  this  knowledge  of  a  few  facts  and  this  acquaint- 
ance with  a  few  bits  of  literature  comprised  the  whole 
historical  and  literary  value  of  the  study  of  Latin,  it 
would  have  to  be  confessed  that  these  ends  could  be 
attained  better  by  the  study  of  translations.  In  fact, 
just  as  in  the  case  of  the  values  already  discussed,  here 
too  the  process  of  learning  is  the  important  thing.  The 
pupil  does  not  merely  learn  some  historical  facts;  he 
learns  them  by  the  best  possible  method,  by  original  in- 
vestigation from  the  sources.  A  wise  teacher  may  lead 
him  to  see  that  he  is  getting  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ordinary  text-book  of  history  and  may  give  him  an 
impetus  toward  a  juster  conception  of  history  than  the 
conning  of  facts  from  a  book.  And  for  the  genuine  ap- 
preciation of  literature  in  general,  the  habit  of  careful 
analysis  and  close  study  of  the  thought  and  form  of  ex- 
pression is  far  more  important  than  the  amount  of  Latin 
literature  which  will  be  remembered.  Such  careful  study 
is  forced  upon  the  Latin  student  by  the  difficulties  of  the 


264  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

language,  but  it  is  hard  to  secure  in  the  English  class 
because  the  language  seems  to  offer  no  difficulty  to  the 
English-speaking  pupil. 

The  comparative  importance  of  this  literary  and  his- 
torical value  needs  the  most  careful  consideration;  for 
the  teacher's  whole  choice  of  books  and  of  methods 
will  be  influenced  chiefly  by  his  opinion  on  this  point. 
If  he  underemphasizes  it,  he  may  be  accused  of  teaching 
only  the  dry  bones  of  his  subject;  if  he  overemphasizes 
it,  he  will  defeat  his  own  purpose  by  failing  to  give  his 
pupils  the  firm  grasp  of  the  language  itself  which  is 
essential  for  a  real  appreciation  of  the  literature.  There 
is  little  danger  of  giving  this  aspect  of  the  work  too  much 
emphasis  in  college,  or  perhaps  in  the  teaching  of  Vergil; 
but  in  much  of  the  recent  literature  on  the  teaching  of 
Latin  there  appears  to  be  a  tendency  to  carry  this  em- 
phasis too  far  back  in  the  course.  For  the  first  two  or 
three  years  this  value  is  much  less  important  than  those 
already  discussed.  During  those  years  the  amount  of 
Latin  which  can  be  read  is  so  small  at  the  best  that  it 
would  be  idle  to  hope  for  much  literary  or  historical  value 
from  it.  At  the  same  time  the  difficulties  of  the  language 
are  so  great  that  it  is  unwise  to  devote  any  large  propor- 
tion of  the  time  to  anything  else.  Every  pupil  can  profit 
by  the  discipline  and  by  the  training  in  English  which 
the  study  of  Latin  gives,  but  not  every  pupil  can  profit 
by  its  purely  cultural  value,  nor  ought  every  pupil  to  be 
expected  to  do  so;  a  subject  taught  so  generally  ought  to 
be  taught  with  chief  reference  to  its  value  to  the  many,  not 
the  few.  Moreover,  the  historical  and  literary  value  re- 
quires maturity  for  any  considerable  realization  by  pupils. 

But,  though  made  subordinate,  this  purely  cultural  side 
of  Latin  study  should  not  be  neglected  wholly.  No  one 


LATIN  265 

can  say  in  advance  which  pupils  can  and  which  cannot 
profit  by  it.  Every  pupil  has  the  right  to  see  that  there 
is  something  higher  in  the  study  of  Latin  than  mere  lan- 
guage study.  Those  who  are  fitted  to  profit  by  it  must 
be  given  an  opportunity  to  find  and  to  show  their  apti- 
tude. The  essential  foundation  for  securing  this  higher 
value  of  Latin  study  is  an  intelligent  comprehension  of 
the  contents  of  the  books  read.  It  is  unjustifiable  to 
allow  pupils  to  feel  that  they  are  translating  discon- 
nected bits  of  Caesar  and  Cicero.  A  few  minutes  of  every 
recitation  should  be  given  to  making  sure  that  the  pupils 
are  following  intelligently  the  narrative  or  the  speech 
as  a  whole.  How  much  more  should  be  done  depends 
partly  on  the  class,  partly  on  how  well  the  teacher  himself 
understands  the  campaigns  of  Caesar,  the  rhetoric  of 
Cicero,  the  motives  and  workmanship  of  Vergil.  But 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  a  bright  class  enjoy  this  aspect 
of  the  study  should  never  beguile  the  teacher  into  for- 
getting that  it  must  be  subordinate  to  thorough  lin- 
guistic work. 

Ability  to  Read  Latin  Versus  the  Three  Greater  Values. — 
To  return  now,  briefly,  to  the  definition  of  the  goal  of 
Latin  teaching  as  the  ability  to  read  Latin,  it  is  clear,  of 
course,  that  the  practical  aim  must  be  to  teach  the  pupil 
to  read  Latin,  just  as  the  practical  aim  of  the  foot-ball 
coach  must  be  to  teach  his  pupils  to  carry  the  ball  over 
the  goal  line.  But  foot-ball  is  not  retained  as  a  college 
sport  merely  that  a  ball  may  be  carried  over  a  goal  line; 
nor  is  Latin  retained  in  the  curriculum  merely  that  pupils 
may  learn  to  read  Latin.  If  foot-ball  is  to  remain  a 
college  sport,  the  coach  must,  it  is  true,  teach  his  pupils 
to  carry  the  ball;  but  all  his  tactics  must  be  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  cultivation  of  courage,  fair  play,  sports- 


266  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

manship,  whatever  other  good  qualities  are  claimed  for 
foot-ball.  If  Latin  is  to  remain  in  the  curriculum,  the 
teacher  must,  it  is  true,  teach  the  pupil  to  read  Latin; 
but  all  his  methods  must  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the 
higher  aims  of  inculcating  right  habits  of  thinking,  of 
improving  the  pupil's  English,  and  of  cultivating  his 
appreciation  of  literature. 

II 

The  Course  of  Study. — In  the  great  majority  of  schools 
the  four  year  Latin  course  consists  of:  (i)  A  beginner's 
book;  (2)  books  I  to  IV,  inclusive,  of  Caesar's  Gallic 
War,  with  one  exercise  a  week  in  composition;  (3)  six 
orations  of  Cicero,  with  one  exercise  a  week  in  compo- 
sition; (4)  books  I  to  VI,  inclusive,  of  Vergil's  JEneid, 
with  or  without  composition.  Until  recently  the  very 
few  universities  which  admit  solely  on  examination  have 
insisted  upon  slight  individual  variations  from  this  tradi- 
tional course.  Now,  however,  the  Commission  on  Col- 
lege Entrance  Requirements,  appointed  by  the  American 
Philological  Association  in  December,  1908,  seems  to 
have  accomplished  its  chief  purpose,  of  formulating  a 
statement  of  entrance  requirements  which  could  be 
accepted  by  all  institutions,  whether  they  admit  students 
on  examination  or  by  certificate.  The  report  of  that 
commission  does  not  require  specifically  the  course  as 
outlined  above;  yet  the  general  adoption  of  the  report 
is  making  it  possible  to  say  for  the  first  time  that  that 
course,  properly  taught,  either  does  now  or  will  soon 
prepare  pupils  to  meet  the  Latin  requirements  of  any 
college  or  university.  Whether  it  is  wise  to  choose  just 
those  authors,  and  always  the  same  parts  of  them,  and 


LATIN  267 

especially  whether  this  course  best  meets  the  needs  of 
pupils  who  will  never  read  Latin  in  college,  are  perhaps 
debatable  questions. 

Report  of  the  Commission  of  Fifteen. — Though  some 
provisions  of  the  commission's  report  can  be  positive  re- 
quirements only  for  those  institutions  which  admit  solely 
on  examination,  they  can  be  adopted  as  recommendations 
by  those  which  admit  on  certificate.  That  the  report  is 
acceptable  to  the  latter  is  shown  by  its  adoption,  in  1911, 
by  the  North  Central  Association  of  Schools  and  Col- 
leges. The  essential  part  of  the  report  is  as  follows: 

"l.  AMOUNT  AND  RANGE  OF  THE  READING  REQUIRED 

"i.  The  Latin  reading  required  of  candidates  for 
admission  to  college,  without  regard  to  the  prescription 
of  particular  authors  and  works,  shall  be  not  less  in 
amount  than  Caesar,  Gallic  War,  I-IV;  Cicero,  the  ora- 
tions against  Catiline,  for  the  Manilian  Law,  and  for 
Archias;  Vergil,  y£neid,  I- VI. 

"2.  The  amount  of  reading  specified  above  shall  be 
selected  by  the  schools  from  the  following  authors  and 
works:  Caesar  (Gallic  War  and  Civil  War)  and  Nepos 
(Lives) ;  Cicero  (orations,  letters,  and  De  Senectute)  and 
Sallust  (Catiline  and  Jugurthine  War) ;  Vergil  (Bucolics, 
Georgics,  and  ^Eneid)  and  Ovid  (Metamorphoses,  Fasti, 
and  Tristia). 

"II.    SUBJECTS  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  EXAMINATIONS 

"i.  Translation  at  Sight. — Candidates  will  be  exam- 
ined in  translation  at  sight  of  both  prose  and  verse.  The 
vocabulary,  constructions,  and  range  of  ideas  of  the 


268  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

passages  set  will  be  suited  to  the  preparation  secured  by 
the  reading  indicated  above. 

"  2.  Prescribed  Reading. — Candidates  will  be  examined 
also  upon  the  following  prescribed  reading:  Cicero,  ora- 
tions for  the  Manilian  Law  and  for  Archias,  and  Vergil, 
jEneid,  I,  II,  and  either  IV  or  VI  at  the  option  of  the 
candidate,  with  questions  on  subject-matter,  literary  and 
historical  allusions,  and  prosody.  Every  paper  in  which 
passages  from  the  prescribed  reading  are  set  for  transla- 
tion will  contain  also  one  or  more  passages  for  translation 
at  sight;  and  candidates  must  deal  satisfactorily  with 
both  these  parts  of  the  paper,  or  they  will  not  be  given 
credit  for  either  part. 

"3*.  Grammar  and  Composition. — The  examinations 
in  grammar  and  composition  will  demand  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  regular  inflections,  all  common  irregular 
forms,  and  the  ordinary  syntax  and  vocabulary  of  the 
prose  authors  read  in  school,  with  ability  to  use  this 
knowledge  in  writing  simple  Latin  prose.  The  words, 
constructions,  and  range  of  ideas  called  for  in  the  exami- 
nations in  composition  will  be  such  as  are  common  in 
the  reading  of  the  year,  or  years,  covered  by  the  particu- 
lar examination." 

It  will  be  seen  that,  in  addition  to  its  chief  purpose  of 
securing  uniformity  of  requirements,  the  commission  de- 
sired two  things:  (i)  To  emphasize  the  importance  of 
sight  tests;  (2)  to  give  the  teacher  a  reasonable  freedom 
of  choice  in  selecting  his  reading  material. 

Translation  at  Sight. — There  is,  of  course,  no  especial 
virtue  in  a  sight  test,  regarded  merely  as  a  test.  In 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  such  tests  the  commission 
meant  to  urge  that  teachers  should  teach  consciously  for 
the  power  to  read  Latin,  Yet  it  did  not  mean  to  recom- 


LATIN  269 

mend  any  revolution  in  the  methods  of  teaching.  A 
pupil  who  has  thoroughly  mastered  a  limited  but  well- 
chosen  vocabulary,  the  inflections,  and  the  important  prin- 
ciples of  syntax,  and  who  has  learned  how  to  attack  a 
Latin  sentence,  will  be  able  to  pass  such  a  sight  test  as 
is  intended;  and,  conversely,  sight  translation  is  an  ex- 
cellent test  of  the  pupil's  command  of  these  essentials. 
Moreover,  if  both  teacher  and  pupil  know  that  a  part  of 
the  coming  test  will  be  the  ability  to  translate,  without 
help  of  any  kind,  a  passage  of  Latin  which  the  pupil  has 
never  before  seen,  their  attitude  toward  vocabulary,  in- 
flections, and  syntax  will  be  very  different  from  that 
which  they  will  have  if  the  decisive  test  is  to  be  on  the 
pupil's  ability  to  remember  the  translation  of  passages 
previously  read.  Therefore,  the  teacher  should  let  it  be 
known  that  he  will  include  such  passages  in  every  exami- 
nation which  he  sets.  But  he  should  bear  in  mind  three 
points:  First,  that  the  ability  to  read  Latin  is  not  in 
itself  the  real  goal  of  secondary  Latin  study;  second, 
that  a  certain  natural  facility  will  often  enable  a  super- 
ficial pupil  to  surpass,  in  this  test,  one  of  more  solid  at- 
tainments; and  third,  that  the  test  will  not  be  fair  unless 
the  teacher  makes  sure  that  the  words  and  constructions 
found  in  it  are  all  among  those  which  the  pupil  ought 
to  know.  The  teacher's  unaided  memory  cannot  be 
trusted  for  this  purpose.  The  words  and  constructions 
may  be  looked  up  for  this  purpose  most  easily  in  Lodge's 
"  Vocabulary  of  High  School  Latin  "  and  Byrne's  "  Syn- 
tax of  High  School  Latin." 

Choice  of  Reading  Material. — As  to  the  other  subsidi- 
ary purpose  of  the  commission,  that  of  securing  freedom 
in  the  choice  of  reading  material,  there  is  room  for  wide 
differences  of  opinion.  Few  would  deny  that  well  trained 


270  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  widely  read  teachers  ought  to  be  allowed  to  choose 
freely  within  reasonable  limits.  But  the  report  will  do 
actual  harm  if  any  teacher,  understanding  it  as  a  recom- 
mendation, abandons  the  traditional  course  of  reading 
without  full  consideration  and  adequate  reason.  Caesar, 
Cicero,  and  Vergil  were  never  imposed  upon  the  schools 
by  outside  authority;  they  are  the  authors  on  whom  the 
teaching  profession,  by  long  experience,  has  settled  as 
being  most  suitable  for  the  conditions  of  our  American 
schools.  The  worst  charge  that  can  be  made  justly 
against  them  is  that  of  monotony.  We  hear  that  it  is 
monotonous  both  to  read  the  same  things  over  and  over, 
year  after  year,  and  to  continue  reading  one  author 
throughout  a  year.  But  to  the  pupils  of  each  succeeding 
class  the  books  are  new  and  fresh;  the  course  is  not  ar- 
ranged for  the  amusement  or  the  instruction  of  the  teach- 
er; the  supposed  monotony  of  reading  a  single  author 
throughout  a  year  is  at  least  partially  balanced  by  the 
increasing  ease  of  the  Latin  and  the  pupil's  increasing 
sense  of  power  as  he  becomes  more  and  more  familiar  with 
the  author's  vocabulary,  constructions,  and  style.  More- 
over, much  of  this  supposed  monotony  will  disappear  if 
more  attention  is  paid  to  the  contents  of  the  books.  Those 
who  find  Caesar,  for  example,  least  interesting  are  apt  to 
be  those  who  know  least  about  him.  An  apparently 
weightier  objection  to  Caesar  and  to  the  orations  of  Cicero 
is  that  their  subject-matter  is  not  vitally  significant  for  the 
pupil  or  for  modern  civilization.  There  is  a  modicum  of 
truth  in  the  statement;  but  to  make  it  a  serious  objection 
to  the  use  of  Caesar  and  Cicero  in  the  second  and  third 
years  involves  two  false  assumptions :  first,  that  the  object 
of  Latin  study  in  those  two  years  is  to  learn  the  contents 
of  the  authors  read;  second,  that  there  are  other  more  sig- 


LATIN  271 

nificant  authors  whose  works  are  equally  suited  in  other 
respects  to  the  reading  of  those  years.  The  subject 
matter  of  both  is  important,  serious,  dignified,  and  clearly 
presented;  the  Latinity  of  each  is  wellnigh  perfection; 
the  style  of  each  is  perfectly  adapted  to  his  subject- 
matter. 

But  the  foregoing  is  intended  to  advise  conservatism, 
not  inflexibility.  Caesar  is  probably  better  suited  to  the 
work  of  the  second  year  than  any  other  author  or  com- 
bination of  authors;  yet,  if  the  work  of  the  first  year  has 
not  prepared  the  class  to  read  Caesar,  it  may  be  well  to 
add  to  the  preparation  by  having  it  read  a  little  easy 
Latin  such  as  Fabula  Faciles.  Parts  of  the  last  three 
books  are  more  interesting  than  parts  of  the  first  four, 
and  may  well  be  substituted  for  them.  The  latter  half 
of  the  first  book,  in  particular,  may  well  be  replaced  by 
either  half  of  the  fifth.  The  Civil  War  is  less  suitable, 
because  it  is  more  difficult  in  both  language  and  story. 
It  is  a  pity  that  a  class  should  gain  no  more  intimate 
insight  into  Cicero's  own  character  and  into  the  life  of 
his  times  than  it  can  get  from  his  speeches;  therefore,  it 
may  be  well  to  substitute  some  of  his  letters  for  one  or 
two  of  the  speeches.  Yet  the  letters  are  generally  more 
difficult  in  both  language  and  contents,  and  the  amount 
that  can  be  read  is  too  small  to  make  much  impression. 
The  third  and  fifth  books  of  the  ^Eneid  can  be  omitted 
without  very  serious  loss;  but  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  Ovid  is  worth  substituting  for  them,  though  he 
is  interesting  and  somewhat  easier  than  Vergil.  The 
misfortune  of  the  Vergil  year  is  not  that  too  much  Ver- 
gil is  read,  but  that  the  whole  cannot  be  read.  Judicious 
selections  from  the  last  six  books  may  serve  to  give  a  fair 
idea  of  Vergil's  purpose  as  a  whole,  and  seem  superior 


272  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  Ovid  as  a  substitute  for  the  third  and  fifth  books,  if 
any  change  is  desired. 

Latin  Composition. — The  commission  made  no  definite 
requirement  as  to  the  amount  of  composition;  but  it  did 
recommend,  in  a  part  of  the  report  not  quoted  above,  that 
there  be  systematic  and  regular  work  in  composition  dur- 
ing the  time  in  which  poetry  is  read,  as  well  as  while  prose 
is  read.  The  equivalent  of  one  period  a  week  is  usually 
allotted  to  this  part  of  the  work,  and  is  little  enough. 
As  pupils  commonly  dislike  composition,  it  sometimes 
appears  to  school  authorities  that  both  time  and  trouble 
could  be  saved  by  omitting  composition  altogether  or  by 
curtailing  its  amount.  Possibly  if  one  considered  only 
the  amount  of  Latin  to  be  read,  and  cared  nothing  for 
the  pupil's  development  or  for  his  knowledge  of  Latin, 
some  time  might  be  saved.  Probably,  however,  even  on 
this  basis  of  judgment  it  could  be  shown  that  the  accuracy 
of  knowledge  attained  through  composition  so  facilitates 
the  pupil's  reading  that  time  is  saved  rather  than  wasted. 
However  that  may  be,  no  one  who  estimates  the  value  of 
Latin  study  in  accordance  with  the  principles  maintained 
earlier  in  this  chapter  will  doubt  that  time  is  actually 
saved  by  composition.  That  is  to  say,  if  one  could  set 
up  a  certain  definite  attainable  standard  of  the  results  to 
be  expected  from  the  study  of  Latin — so  much  discipline, 
so  much  improvement  in  English,  so  much  literary  appre- 
ciation, so  much  ability  to  read  Latin — it  is  certain  that 
that  standard  would  be  reached  more  quickly  and  more 
certainly  by  giving  a  part  of  the  time  to  composition  than 
by  devoting  it  all  to  reading.  For  the  aim  of  Latin  com- 
position is  not  something  distinct  and  different  from  the 
aim  of  translation.  No  one  wishes  the  secondary  pupil 
to  leam  to  write  Latin  as  an  end  in  itself.  Composition 


LATIN  273 

is  to  be  taught  as  an  indispensable  supplement  to  trans- 
lation in  achieving  the  general  purposes  of  Latin  study. 
All  of  these  purposes  call  for  thorough  study  and  accurate 
knowledge.  Inaccurate  knowledge,  combined  with  notes 
and  a  sense  of  the  general  meaning,  may  enable  a  pupil 
to  translate  a  good  many  Latin  sentences;  but  it  leaves 
him  helpless  in  the  face  of  any  difficulty.  Composition 
tests,  as  nothing  else  does,  the  accuracy  of  the  pupil's 
knowledge  of  words,  forms,  and  constructions;  it  gives 
him  an  incentive  to  learn  these  things  accurately;  it  helps 
him  to  fix  them  in  memory;  it  is  the  most  potent  influence 
in  forcing  him  to  notice  and  reflect  upon  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  English  words  and  idioms  and  sentences.  If  the 
pupil  dislikes  the  work,  it  is  chiefly  because  his  knowledge 
is  so  inaccurate  that  he  can  be  sure  of  nothing  without 
looking  it  up;  for  pupils  like  what  they  can  do  well  and 
accurately.  The  true  remedy  is  more  accurate  teaching 
and  more,  rather  than  less,  composition. 

Formal  Grammar  Study. — Perhaps  the  most  unfortu- 
nate tendency  in  the  Latin  teaching  of  the  last  twenty 
or  thirty  years  has  been  the  minimizing  of  formal  gram- 
mar study.  This  has  resulted  in  part  from  the  mistaken 
belief  that  the  literary  and  historical  value  is  of  chief 
importance  in  secondary  Latin  teaching,  in  part  from  a 
desire  to  render  the  subject  easier.  But  a  thorough  and 
systematic  knowledge  of  the  grammar  can  be  defended 
both  for  its  own  sake,  as  a  mental  discipline,  and  as  a 
basis  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  grammar  of 
English  and  other  modern  languages,  and  as  an  indis- 
pensable tool  for  ascertaining  with  exactness  the  meaning 
of  the  Latin  which  is  read. 

The  failure  of  pupils  to  grasp  firmly  the  principles  of 
Latin  grammar  is  due  in  part  to  the  general  abandon- 


274  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

merit  of  the  former  practice  of  studying  the  grammar 
straight  through  in  daily  assignments.  It  is  due  also,  and 
perhaps  still  more,  to  the  character  of  the  beginner's 
books  and  the  composition  books  which  are  in  general 
use.  For  some  years  the  majority  of  these  books  have 
presented  the  grammatical  material  in  almost  every 
possible  order  except  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
grammar.  Space  will  not  permit  a  full  discussion  of  the 
reasons  alleged  for  this  lack  of  systematic  arrangement. 
It  is  admitted,  of  course,  that  some  deviations  from  the 
system  of  the  grammars  are  necessary.  But  the  teacher 
is  strongly  advised  to  select  both  a  beginner's  book  and 
a  manual  of  composition  that  present  the  grammati- 
cal material  systematically — that  is,  as  far  as  possible, 
with  all  the  declensions  together,  all  the  conjugations 
together,  all  the  uses  of  each  case  together,  all  the  uses 
of  the  tenses  together,  etc.  Such  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment makes  the  details  easier  to  learn,  to  review,  and  to 
retain;  it  gives  the  pupil  a  chance  to  feel  that  he  is  defi- 
nitely completing  one  subject  after  another  and  pro- 
gressing toward  the  completion  of  a  definite  task,  instead 
of  learning  a  miscellany  of  disconnected  facts  from  a 
seemingly  endless  confusion;  it  will  in  time  let  him  feel 
that  Latin  grammar  is  a  complete  and  well-organized 
whole. 

Ill 

The  Training  of  the  Teacher. — Both  the  many-sided- 
ness of  Latin  study  and  the  length  of  time  during  which 
the  pupil  comes  under  the  influence  of  the  Latin  teacher 
make  it  fair  to  demand  that  the  teacher  shall  have  an 
especially  wide  and  thorough  training.  Latin  is  one  of 
the  subjects  which  should  never  be  taught  by  a  teacher 


LATIN  275 

who  has  had  less  than  a  full  college  course;  for  with  less 
training  than  that  the  teacher  must  have  either  an  insuf- 
ficient knowledge  of  Latin  or  a  narrowness  of  prepara- 
tion which  will  not  allow  him  to  see  the  relations  of  Latin 
study  to  other  subjects. 

The  Minimum  Preparation. — The  absolutely  essential 
preparation  of  a  Latin  teacher  consists  of  (i)  an  exact 
knowledge  of  the  language  itself — its  forms,  its  vocabu- 
lary, its  syntax,  its  sentence  structure.  Several  college 
reading  courses  and  one  or  two  college  composition 
courses  are  needed  to  give  this  knowledge.  (2)  A  feel- 
ing for  the  best  English  usage,  an  ability  to  use  good 
English,  and  an  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  best  Eng- 
lish literature.  (3)  Some  acquaintance  with  the  ancient 
world  and  with  the  conditions  under  which  Csesar,  Cicero, 
and  Vergil  wrote.  A  good  college  course  in  ancient  his- 
tory, one  in  the  history  of  Roman  literature,  and  one 
in  the  private  life  of  the  Romans  should  be  regarded  as 
essential.  If  a  course  in  Cicero's  letters  can  be  included 
among  the  reading  courses,  it  will  help  materially  in 
meeting  this  requirement. 

The  Adequate  Preparation. — But  the  preparation  just 
outlined  represents  only  the  barest  equipment  with 
which  it  is  possible  to  do  respectable  work.  No  teacher 
with  only  that  preparation  can  give  his  pupils  all  they 
ought  to  get  from  Latin.  The  fully  equipped  second- 
ary teacher  of  Latin  must  have  penetrated  more  deeply 
into  the  spirit  of  ancient  civilization,  by  further  study 
of  ancient  literature,  history,  and  archaeology.  He  must 
have  pursued  each  of  the  branches  of  classical  study 
at  least  so  far  that  he  can  find  and  use  all  the  evidence 
on  any  question  that  may  arise  in  his  teaching.  That 
is,  while  he  need  not  have  added  to  the  sum  of  hu- 


276  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

man  knowledge  by  original  investigation  in  any  branch 
of  classical  study,  yet  he  must  know  how  to  find  out 
what  others  have  done,  and  must  be  capable  of  an  in- 
dependent judgment  on  it.  This  means,  above  all  else, 
a  knowledge  of  Greek,  without  which  the  teacher  of 
Latin  is  even  more  helpless  than  the  teacher  of  Eng- 
lish is  without  Latin.  It  means  a  reading  knowledge  of 
French  and  German,  in  which  much  of  the  best  classical 
work  has  been  written.  It  does  not  necessarily  mean 
the  investigation  work  required  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy;  but  it  does  mean  at  least  two  years  of 
graduate  work  in  Latin  and  Greek  with  courses  in  the 
literatures,  in  comparative  grammar,  in  political  insti- 
tutions, in  ancient  art  and  architecture,  in  the  trans- 
mission of  the  classics  to  us  through  the  manuscripts,  and 
in  other  like  subjects.  It  is  more  and  more  coming  to 
mean  an  extended  visit  to  Rome,  preferably  a  year  spent 
in  the  American  School  at  Rome. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MODERN  LANGUAGES 
W.  H.  CAKRUTH,  PH.D. 

HEAD   OP  DEPARTMENT   OF   GERMAN,   UNIVERSITY  OF   KANSAS 

Excepting  a  limited  field  of  facial  and  sign  expression, 
language  is  the  primary  means  of  communication  for  men 
and,  hence,  the  primary  means  of  acquiring  all  knowl- 
edge not  arrived  at  by  direct  experimentation.  From 
the  moment  of  birth  the  infant  is  studying  its  mother 
tongue  and  devotes  on  an  average  one  year  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  its  first  word,  and  five  or  six  years  to  the  mastery 
of  a  vocabulary  of  five  hundred  words  and  the  manage- 
ment of  the  simple  sentence.  The  average  man  never 
masters  his  language  and  even  the  so-called  masters  of 
the  language  are  always  at  school,  never  complete  their 
discipline. 

Language  Study  Should  Begin  Early. — These  simple 
observations  furnish  a  foundation  for  the  theory  of  lan- 
guage study  when  applied  to  a  second  language.  It 
should  begin  as  early  as  possible;  it  is  preliminary,  a 
means  to  other  attainments;  it  cannot  expect  to  proceed 
suddenly.  It  involves  a  training  of  the  ear,  of  the  mem- 
ory, and  of  the  analytical  and  comparative  judgment. 
Inasmuch  as  the  right  relations  of  men  depend  upon 
correct  understanding  of  terms,  precision  in  language 
must  accompany  exact  justice  in  conduct.  Expression 
in  language  is  a  constant  exercise  in  approximation  to 

277 


278  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

reality,  a  constant  appeal  to  the  logical,  the  ethical  or  the 
aesthetic  sense.  A  living  language,  when  studied  by  a 
thinking  being,  is  not  only  a  science,  but  as  its  exercise 
develops  in  precision  and  variety  and  potency  of  expres- 
sion, it  becomes  the  highest  of  the  arts.  A  common 
medium  of  communication  is  the  primary  essential  to 
neighborly  and  national  intercourse  and  good-will.  The 
knowledge  of  a  nation's  language  throws  down  the  bar- 
riers of  prejudice  and  opens  the  way  to  that  nation's 
highest  intellectual  and  spiritual  treasures. 

Early  Methods  of  Instruction. — It  was  not  until  the 
eighteenth  century  that  modern  foreign  languages  received 
regular  attention  in  the  public  schools,  as  French  in  the 
schools  of  Prussia.  And  not  until  the  nineteenth  century 
were  they  anywhere  considered  as  possible  equals  of,  or 
substitutes  for,  the  ancient  languages  in  the  school  curric- 
ulum. Until  the  second  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  method  of  instruction  had  been  that  of  the  instruction 
of  monastic  and  parish  schools  in  ancient  languages,  a 
foundation  of  grammar  taught  by  memorizing  of  rules 
and  forms  and  word-lists,  followed  by  memorizing  and 
translating  and  interpreting  of  texts.  Everywhere,  of 
course,  individuals  had  learned  living  foreign  languages 
by  the  simple  old  method  of  dwelling  among  and  mixing 
with  the  people.  Doubtless  here  and  there  some  pri- 
vate instruction  had  followed  this  method.  But  regular 
school  instruction  had  been  deductive,  or  synthetic. 

The  Inductive  or  Reading  Method. — In  the  first  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century  James  Hamilton  in  England 
and  America,  and  Jacotot  in  France,  introduced  the  ana- 
lytic or  inductive  method,  which  has  since  been  called 
the  reading  method:  Beginning  with  a  portion  of  text, 
memorized  and  explained,  and  deriving  the  principles  of 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  279 

grammar  from  this,  to  be  in  turn  applied  to  further  por- 
tions of  text,  the  system  of  grammar  approaching  com- 
pleteness as  the  amount  of  text  became  considerable. 
This  method  was  applied  to  living  as  well  as  to  ancient 
languages. 

In  schools  for  girls  French  and  Italian  had  places  in 
the  curriculum  long  before  modern  languages  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  secondary  school  for  men.  Special  schools 
for  commercial  and  diplomatic  training  also  offered  in- 
struction in  modern  languages  before  they  were  accepted 
in  the  schools  that  prepared  for  college  and  university. 
The  demand  for  the  practical,  "Realien,"  led  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the  estab- 
lishment in  Prussia  of  secondary  schools  in  which  modern 
languages  displaced,  or  largely  displaced,  the  ancient. 
In  Germany  these  secondary  schools,  Realschulen  and 
Realgymnasien,  have  many  of  the  privileges  of  the  Gym- 
nasien,  but  their  graduates  are  not  yet  received  into  all 
the  schools  ("Faculties")  of  the  Prussian  universities. 
In  the  United  States  modern  languages  were  accepted 
as  a  portion  of  the  requirement  for  college  entrance 
as  early  as  1860,  but  as  possible  substitutes  for  Latin 
only  since  1900  and  only  in  a  few  of  the  Western 
universities. 

The  Natural  Method. — In  1843,  Gottlieb  Heness,  in 
his  "Leitfaden  zum  deutschen  Unterricht,"  announced 
a  modified  method  of  instruction  which  has  since  been 
widely  developed  and  called  the  natural  method;  also, 
the  genetic  or  the  psychologic  method.  Its  characteristic 
is  the  use  in  the  class  room  of  the  language  to  be  taught, 
both  in  the  regular  instruction  and  in  conversation, 
which  turns  upon  the  "Realien"  of  the  room;  formal 
grammar  is  taught  only  as  commentary  on  the  Ian- 


280  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

guage  used  and  translation  into  the  native  language  is 
avoided.  Nearly  forty  years  after  Heness,  Sauveur 
applied  the  method  to  French  in  "Causeries  avec  mes 
eleves"  and  also  to  Latin.  About  the  same  time  as 
Sauveur,  Gouin  in  his  "L'art  d'enseigner  et  d'etudier 
les  langues,"  developed  a  variety  of  this  method,  the  chief 
differences  of  which  are,  the  grouping  of  the  exercises  in 
logical  series  and  the  sentences  of  each  exercise  about  a 
single  theme  or  process,  and  the  greater  emphasis  on 
memorizing.  This  method  was  later  popularized  by 
Bdtis  in  England. 

The  Reform  Method. — Only  two  years  after  Gouin, 
Victor,  in  Germany,  gave  the  word  for  a  reform  of  lan- 
guage methods  in  his  "Der  Sprachunterricht  muss  um- 
kehren."  It  was  several  years  before  his  suggestions 
developed  into  what  is  sometimes  called  the  "phonetic" 
method,  or,  in  Germany,  the  "reform"  method.  This 
again  is  largely  a  modification  of  the  "natural"  method, 
or,  more  closely,  of  the  "psychological"  method.  It 
dwells  strongly  on  conversation  based  on  "Realien"  and 
postpones  formal  grammar  and  literature  beyond  the  first 
two  years.  Its  marked  characteristic  is  the  insistence 
on  physiological  study  of  pronunciation  and  the  use  of 
phonetic  alphabet  and  texts  during  the  first  two  or  more 
years  of  reading.  The  individual  representatives  of  the 
reform  have  introduced  various  ingenious  and  sensible 
features  into  their  instruction. 

Development  of  Text-Books. — Live  and  wise  teachers 
have  taken  note  of  the  suggestions  of  all  these  methods, 
and  the  authors  of  text-books  have  adopted  those  that 
commend  themselves  as  suitable  to  the  conditions  of 
American  secondary  schools  and  the  preparation  of  our 
teachers.  As  a  rule,  what  is  put  forward  as  a  new  method 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  281 

is  the  method  of  an  individual  and  can  seldom  be  adopted 
bodily  by  other  teachers.  But  the  analytic,  the  genetic, 
the  natural,  and  the  phonetic  methods  have  all  made 
their  impress  on  the  text-books  and  apparatus  of  modern 
language  teaching.  In  1860  there  were  not  over  a  dozen 
grammars  and  special  school  texts  for  teachers  in  modern 
languages  in  America.  Within  fifty  years  the  number  has 
grown  to  many  hundreds,  which  are  constantly  being 
revised  or  displaced  by  better  ones.  Six  or  eight  pub- 
lishing houses  devote  a  considerable  part  of  their  atten- 
tion to  preparing  good  texts  for  modern  language  work. 
While  the  teacher  may  well  give  heed  to  selecting  the 
best  of  these,  the  poorest  are  much  better  than  anything 
that  was  available  sixty  years  ago. 

Illustrative  Material. — Similarly,  the  growing  demand 
in  all  the  newer  methods  for  "Realien"  has  brought  forth 
an  increasing  supply  of  illustrative  material  for  the  class 
room.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  song  books, 
for  use  in  class  and  in  the  language  club;  stereopticons 
and  reflectoscopes,  with  an  enormous  quantity  of  illus- 
trations in  the  way  of  slides  and  postals;  phonographs 
and  speech  records,  though  the  supply  in  this  direction  is 
inadequate  (however,  with  a  little  practice  each  teacher 
can  make  his  own) ;  maps  of  foreign  countries  and  plans 
of  cities;  phonetic  charts;  wall  pictures  of  foreign  archi- 
tecture, of  scenery,  of  authors,  and  copies  of  works  of 
art;  illustrated  books  and  illustrated  journals.  While 
it  is  not  easy  to  obtain  appropriations  for  these  articles 
from  school  boards  in  smaller  places,  money  may  be 
obtained  for  such  purposes  by  plays  and  entertainments 
given  by  the  pupils  in  modern  languages  and  sometimes 
by  appeals  to  public-spirited  citizens.  Such  gifts  bless 
the  givers  and  increase  their  interest  in  the  schools. 


282  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  Preparation  of  the  Teacher. — As  in  other  fields, 
the  teacher  of  a  language  should  know  his  subject.  He 
should  also  know  the  difficulties  of  acquiring  it,  that  is, 
should  understand  the  point  of  view  of  the  learner.  And 
he  should  know  by  theory  and  practice  the  devices, 
methods,  and  apparatus  which  best  serve  his  end. 
"Knowing  his  subject"  is,  however,  a  relative  expression. 
Opinion  has  been  divided  as  to  whether  the  teacher  of  a 
foreign  language  should,  or  need  not,  be  a  native  to  the 
language  born.  The  native  has  a  facility  in  the  control 
of  his  language  which  others  rarely  acquire.  But  one 
may  have  this  control  and  yet  lack  an  essential  element; 
the  control  of  his  subject  by  the  teacher  must  be  a  con- 
scious control.  One  who  knows  no  language  but  his  own 
rarely  has  this.  Again,  one  who  has  himself  had  to  learn 
a  language  understands  its  difficulties  as  a  native  rarely 
does.  So  that  there  are  advantages  on  both  sides.  Cer- 
tain it  is,  that  the  teacher  of  a  modern  foreign  language 
should  be  able  to  express  himself  in  it  with  reasonable 
ease.  This  power  is  rarely  acquired  in  less  than  three  or 
four  years  of  consecutive  study  and  then  usually  only  by 
practice  among  natives.  So  that  as  a  minimum  prepa- 
ration forty  hours  of  high  school  or  college  study  of  the 
language,  not  less  than  twenty  of  this  amount  to  be  in 
college,  and  three  months  in  the  foreign  country  is  a 
moderate  requirement.  It  is  assumed  that  the  teacher  has 
acquired  during  this  course  of  study  a  knowledge  of  some 
of  the  masterpieces  of  literature,  an  outline  of  the  history 
and  the  literature  of  the  people,  some  acquaintance  with 
their  spirit,  ideals,  and  customs.  In  addition  to  the 
knowledge  of  his  subject  on  such  a  minimum  basis,  the 
teacher  should  have  prepared  for  his  work  by  special 
study  of  the  methods  of  instruction,  either  by  visiting  and 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  283 

observing  the  methods  of  successful  teachers,  or  by  the 
pursuit  of  special  courses  to  this  end,  and  if  possible  he 
should  have  had  some  opportunity  to  put  these  methods 
into  practice  under  the  guidance  and  criticism  of  expe- 
rienced leaders. 

In  stating  such  a  minimum  of  preparation,  which  in 
practice  is  much  higher  than  that  possessed  by  many  who 
are  compelled  to  undertake  work  for  which  they  are  not 
properly  prepared,  it  is  felt  on  the  one  hand  that  this 
minimum  is  pitifully  scanty;  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
fact  is  not  ignored  that  many  a  teacher  of  tact  and  gifts 
has  succeeded  with  much  less.  Good- will  and  the  desire 
to  help,  combined  with  good  sense  and  a  natural  faculty 
of  expression,  are  more  essential  for  success  in  teaching 
than  any  prescribed  attainments.  Nevertheless,  the  good 
teacher  should  have  all  the  attainment  possible.  Better 
if,  in  addition  to  the  minimum  here  stated,  he  have  a 
year  or  more  in  the  country  whose  tongue  he  would 
teach,  special  study  and  training  in  speech  physiology 
and  phonetics,  and  knowledge  of  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  language.  It  is  presumed,  in  what  has  been 
said,  that  the  teacher  has  a  thorough  mastery  of  the 
grammar  of  his  own  tongue  as  well  as  a  high  school 
course,  at  least,  in  Latin.  There  is  also  gain  in  a  knowl- 
edge of  a  second  modern  language. 

The  Time  to  Begin  Foreign  Language  Study. — The 
average  age  of  American  pupils  on  entering  the  second- 
ary school,  fourteen,  is  too  high  for  the  best  results  in 
foreign  language  study.  For  the  reasons  suggested  at 
the  opening  of  this  chapter  the  age  of  ten  would  be  better. 
But  it  can  scarcely  be  expected  that  a  foreign  language 
should  find  a  place  in  the  fifth  grade,  since  the  pupil's 
time  is  absorbed  in  acquiring  the  elements  of  his  own 


284  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

tongue  and  the  rudiments  of  knowledge.  In  the  seventh 
grade,  however,  time  can  be  found,  to  be  taken  profitably 
from  advanced  reading  and  English  grammar,  for  the 
beginning  of  at  least  one  foreign  language.  There  are 
good  reasons  to  support  the  claim  of  either  Latin  or  Ger- 
man for  this  place.  If  Latin  is  begun  here,  German  has 
the  advantage  of  the  discipline  thus  obtained.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  pupil  of  twelve  is  perhaps  more  easily 
interested  in  the  living  language.  But  if  German  is  the 
language  begun  here,  there  are  more  chances  that  Latin 
will  not  be  taken  up  at  all.  At  any  rate,  the  age  of  twelve, 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade,  is,  all  things  con- 
sidered, the  best  place  for  taking  up  a  foreign  language, 
and  it  should  be  urged  upon  school  boards  as  at  least  an 
elective,  not  waiting  for  the  better  day  discussed  in 
Chapter  III,  when  this  grade  shall  belong  to  the  high 
school  curriculum. 

Under  the  four-year  high  school  curriculum  Latin  is  in 
a  large  majority  of  schools  the  primary  foreign  language, 
begun  in  the  first  year,  while  if  a  second  foreign  language 
is  pursued  it  is  usually  German,  to  be  begun  in  the 
second  year.  French  may  be  taken  instead  of  German, 
or  it  may  be  begun  in  the  third  year,  although  very  few 
students  pursue  three  foreign  languages  in  the  secondary 
school.  Within  the  last  ten  years  in  many  schools  an 
option  has  been  given  between  French  and  Spanish,  or 
between  German  and  Spanish,  with  many  takers.  In 
several  States  this  option  has  been  extended  to  the  Latin, 
the  only  requirement  being  a  certain  minimum  of  foreign 
language.  In  all  this  variety  one  point  is  agreed  upon: 
that  two  languages  should  not  be  begun  in  the  same  year. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  discuss  in  detail 
the  relative  advantages  of  the  various  languages.  The 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  285 

writer  has  some  prejudice  for  the  German.  But,  con- 
sidering all  the  factors  in  the  case — the  established  stand- 
ards of  Latin  attainment,  the  value  of  the  mental  disci- 
pline to  be  derived  from  language  study,  together  with  the 
actual  value  of  even  a  scanty  acquaintance  with  Latin 
roots  and  forms  and  Roman  traditions — the  writer  is  in- 
clined to  counsel  caution  in  substituting  the  as  yet  more 
yeasty  ideals  of  modern  language  instruction  for  the 
sure  benefits  of  the  Latin,  and  to  urge  the  speedy  estab- 
lishment of  standards  for  the  modern  languages  and 
thoroughness  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  of  the  same, 
against  the  day  quite  plainly  coming  when  high  school 
pupils  will  all  have  this  option.  When  the  teachers  of 
German  and  French  and  Spanish  shall  have  as  definite 
aims,  and  be  as  thoroughly  trained  for  their  work,  the 
writer  believes  that  German  at  least  will  have  nearly  all 
the  advantages  of  Latin,  with  certain  others  that  more 
than  counterbalance  those  the  German  has  not.  Certain 
geographical  locations  will  turn  the  scale  slightly  in  favor 
of  Spanish  or  French  as  the  first  language  to  be  taken  up. 
Courses  in  Modern  Languages. — The  Committee  of 
Twelve  of  the  American  Modern  Language  Association 
(see  Report  in  Bibliography),  has  carefully  outlined  the 
work  of  two-year,  three-year,  and  four-year  courses  in 
German  and  French,  recommending  that  these  be  called 
elementary,  intermediate,  and  advanced  courses.  The 
suggestions  of  the  committee  have  been  widely  followed 
and  have  been  subject  to  slight  revision  by  various  State 
and  district  conferences.  The  high  school  teacher  is 
advised  to  procure  and  study  the  report.  The  list  of 
texts  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Twelve  to  be 
read  in  the  various  grades  may  wisely  be  extended.  If 
the  high  school  course  in  German  or  French  is  limited 


286  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  two  years,  as  in  so  many  cases,  it  seems  highly  desirable 
that  the  pupils  should  not  lose  this,  perhaps  their  only, 
opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  a  standard  classic 
of  the  language  studied.  In  this  case  "Wilhelm  Tell" 
for  German  and  "Colomba"  or  "Le  Cid"  for  French 
may  well  be  read  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  year. 
In  German,  at  least,  no  one-year  course  should  be  en- 
couraged. 

The  following  may  indicate  a  fair  division  of  the  work 
by  years,  or  units,  meaning  five  periods  a  day  for  the 
school  year. 

1.  The  work  of  the  first  year  should  comprise: 

(1)  Careful  and  persistent  drill  upon  connected  pro- 
nunciation; 

(2)  Drill  upon  the  rudiments  of  grammar;  viz.,  upon 
inflections,  including  the  more  usual  strong  or  irregular 
verbs;  also  upon  the  use  of  the  more  common  prepositions, 
the  simpler  uses  of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  and  the  elemen- 
tary rules  of  syntax  and  word-order;  accompanied  by 

(3)  The  memorizing  and  frequent  repetition  of  easy 
colloquial  sentences; 

(4)  Abundant  easy  exercises,  designed  not  only  to  fix 
in  mind  the  forms  and  principles  of  grammar,  but  also 
to  cultivate  readiness  in  the  reproduction  of  natural  forms 
of  expression; 

(5)  The  reading  of  from  50  to  100  pages  of  graduated 
texts  from  a  reader  or  other  text,  with  constant  practice 
in  translating  into  German  easy  variations  upon  sen- 
tences selected  from  the  reading  lesson  (the  teacher  giv- 
ing the  English). 

2.  The  work  of  the  second  year  should  comprise: 

(i)  The  reading  of  from  150  to  200  pages  of  suitable 
texts  in  the  form  of  easy  stories  and  plays; 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  287 

(2)  Accompanying  practice,  as  before,  in  the  transla- 
tion into  German  and  easy  variations  upon  the  matter 
read; 

(3)  Continued  drill  upon  the  essentials  of  the  grammar, 
including  the  difficulties  of  the  infinitive  and  the  subjunc- 
tive, the  separable  verbs  and  word-order. 

The  net  results  of  the  first  two  years  of  a  high  school 
German  course  should  be: 

(a)  A  correct  and  ready  pronunciation. 

(b)  A  ready,  exact,  and  fairly  complete  working  knowl- 
edge of  grammar,  especially  on  the  formal  (inflectional) 
side. 

(c)  At  least  some  ability  to  speak  and  understand  the 
foreign  spoken  language. 

(d)  A  better  understanding  of  the  grammatical  struct- 
ure of  the  English  language. 

The  work  of  the  third  year  should  comprise  (i)  a 
thorough  and  systematic  review  of  the  grammar  in  con- 
nection with  suitable  systematic  practice  in  composition; 
(2)  the  reading  of  some  three  hundred  to  four  hundred 
pages  of  moderately  difficult  prose  and  poetry  with  an 
effort  to  secure  its  appreciation  as  literature. 

The  work  of  the  fourth  year  should  comprise  the  read- 
ing of  about  five  hundred  pages  of  good  modern  literature 
with  reference  readings  on  the  lives  and  works  of  the 
authors,  the  writing  of  short  themes  upon  the  work  done, 
and  perhaps  a  brief  outline  of  the  history  of  German  lit- 
erature. 

In  the  case  of  French  this  programme  may  serve  with 
an  increase  of  fifty  per  cent  in  the  amount  to  be  read. 


CHAPTER  XV 
HISTORY,  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT,  AND  POLITICAL  ECONOM1 

WAYLAND  J.  CHASE,  A.M. 

ASSOCIATE   PROFESSOR   OF  HISTORY,    UNIVERSITY  OF   WISCONSIN 

Importance  of  the  Study  of  History. — Modern  educa- 
tional theory  in  interpreting  education  as  adjustment, 
necessarily  gives  an  important  place  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum to  history  and  its  cognate  subjects,  civics  and  politi- 
cal economy.  The  high  school  pupil  is  a  member  of 
society  and  a  citizen  of  a  commonwealth,  with  social 
and  political  obligations  that  grow  with  his  growth,  and 
it  inevitably  results  that  social  and  political  institutions 
constitute  increasingly  important  elements  in  his  sur- 
roundings. These  he  must  understand  if  he  is  to  be  a 
good  citizen,  and  he  can  really  understand  them  only  in 
the  light  of  their  origins  and  through  acquaintance  with 
their  growth  and  development.  What  geology  does  for 
the  student  in  revealing  the  changes  through  which  the 
earth's  surface  has  come  to  be  what  it  is,  history  with 
civics  and  economics  does  for  him  in  the  realm  of  human 
activities,  explaining  how  and  why  men  have  come  to 
possess  their  present  ideals  and  beliefs,  to  have  the  forms 
of  industry,  government,  law,  and  religion  that  they  now 
have,  and  to  live  according  to  present  modes  and  customs. 
These  subjects,  interpreted  to  boys  and  girls  by  wisely 
directed  study,  revolutionize  their  conceptions  of  their 
relations  to  mankind  and  to  society,  and  their  ideas  of 

288 


HISTORY  289 

their  country's  relation  to  the  world;  thus  human  sym- 
pathy is  developed  and  strengthened,  and  provincialism 
broken  down. 

The  ability  to  take  large  views  of  life's  concerns  and 
interests,  freed  from  narrow  ideals  and  restricted  outlook, 
is  reckoned  an  element  of  strength  in  an  individual. 
So  travel,  giving  the  sense  of  space  and  of  largeness  of 
the  world,  and  acquaintance  with  new  conditions  of  life, 
is  felt  to  be  a  great  advantage.  After  the  manner  of  the 
favored  traveller,  the  student  of  history  traverses  distances, 
especially  in  the  realm  of  time,  and  not  least  important 
among  the  results  of  this  journeying  is  a  real  conception 
of  the  meaning  of  time,  such  as  can  be  obtained  only  from 
the  study  of  man's  slow  progress  upward.  In  learning 
to  reckon  progress  from  the  stone  age  rather  than  from 
the  immediate  past,  the  pupil  takes  a  long  step  away  from 
narrowness  and  provincialism,  and  comes  into  contact 
with  peoples  previously  undreamed  of,  working  under 
strange  and  novel  conditions  at  tasks  unheard  of  by  him 
before.  His  horizon  is  extended,  the  mansion  of  his  mind 
is  refurnished.  He  is  enabled  to  view  and  estimate  life's 
affairs  apart  from  their  immediate  relation  to  himself. 

In  all  this  there  is  much  more  than  the  pageant  ele- 
ment, the  moving  picture  show,  for,  besides  the  broad- 
ening and  liberalizing  effects  which  enlarge  the  spiritual 
nature  of  the  pupil,  these  studies  also  afford  intellectual 
training  of  very  definite  sort. 

Memory  is  the  mpst  wonderful  and  important  of  our 
intellectual  faculties,  and  all  that  tends  to  strengthen  and 
develop  it  is  of  the  highest  importance.  History  is  fore- 
most among  the  studies  that  do  this,  for  in  its  very  nature  it 
is  a  memory  study,  and  memory  gains  facility  by  practice. 
It  has  been  too  common  to  decry  the  practical  value  of 


290  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  imagination.  Attention  needs  often  to  be  called  to 
the  fact  that  all  exploits  begin  with  a  vision  of  the  possi- 
ble and  are  products  of  constructive  imagination.  To 
be  able  to  dream  great  things  must  be  wedded  to  the 
capacity  to  accomplish  them  in  order  to  have  efficiency, 
but  imagination  is  an  essential  element  of  this  partner- 
ship. The  study  which  compels  the  pupil  to  hear  the 
shock  and  clash  of  the  Persian  and  Greek  ships  at  Salamis 
and  to  feel  the  suffering  of  our  forefathers  at  Valley  Forge 
is  continually  an  exercise  in  constructive  imagination. 
That  mathematics  and  natural  science  train  the  logical 
powers  and  develop  the  judgment  all  concede,  but  these 
studies  deal  with  problems  the  conditions  of  which  in 
their  comparative  simplicity  are  unlike  every-day  human 
conditions,  and  they  teach  conclusions  whose  certainty 
is  rarely  to  be  found  in  practical  life.  How  delightful 
it  would  be  if  every  life  problem  could  be  solved  like 
an  equation  by  substitution,  and  how  grateful  would  be 
that  assurance  of  the  correctness  of  the  answer  which  we 
feel  when  the  problem  in  mathematics  has  been  solved! 
That  very  certainty  of  conditions  and  conclusions  which 
characterizes  these  properly  named  exact  sciences  is  want- 
ing in  the  problems  of  life.  Life  is  not  an  exact  science 
and  its  problems  are  complex  and  intricate  and  require 
for  their  solution  the  careful  balancing  of  considerations, 
and  examination  from  several  sides.  The  problems  pre- 
sented by  the  study  of  history  are  just  the  problems  of 
every-day  life  with  all  their  complications,  intricacy,  and 
human  quality,  and  therefore  afford  excellent  material 
for  the  practice  of  judgment  and  training  of  the  reason- 
ing powers.  History  deals  with  men  and  women,  with 
motives  of  human  action,  and  with  agencies  that  have 
influenced  human  life  and  still  continue  to  do  so.  No 


HISTORY  291 

other  study  offers  such  opportunity  for  training  in  esti- 
mating men,  their  characters,  their  powers,  and  their 
probable  courses  of  action.  There  is  brought  to  the 
student  a  growing  realization  of  the  complexity  of  civili- 
zation and  society  and  of  the  multitude  of  causes  and 
agencies  at  work,  and  he  becomes  habituated  to  seeking 
and  weighing  evidence  and  to  suspending  judgment  till 
all  has  been  heard. 

These  intellectual  values  constitute  the  choicest  prod- 
ucts of  this  study,  but  it  must  be  recognized  that  they 
are  yielded  up  to  the  student  rather  than  to  the  mere 
reader:  that  the  study  of  history  involves  and  demands 
the  application  of  aims  and  methods  as  earnest  and 
thorough-going  as  those  by  which  enduring  success  is 
obtained  in  other  fields  of  knowledge.  From  such  study 
there  may  also  be  expected  training  in  oral  and  written 
expression  and  ability  to  use  and  enjoy  good  books. 

Undoubtedly  ethical  training  is  also  afforded,  espe- 
cially in  the  form  of  ideals.  It  is  proverbial  that  truth 
embodied  in  a  tale  has  great  power  of  penetration,  and 
doubtless  most  of  these  ethical  lessons  can  be  left  for  his- 
tory unaided  to  teach. 

History  as  a  High  School  Study  of  Recent  Adoption. — 
The  recognition  of  the  value  of  history  for  high  school 
pupils  has  come  practically  within  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century.  Before  1892  history  had  not  been  generally 
adopted  as  a  high  school  study,  though  general  history, 
American  history,  ancient  history,  and  occasionally  Eng- 
lish history  were  all  variously  included  in  some  high 
school  courses  of  study  and  in  many  college  entrance 
requirements.  At  the  Saratoga  meeting  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  July,  1892,  a  committee  of  ten 
was  appointed  to  select  members  of  conferences  which 


292  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

should  consider,  for  each  subject  of  the  programme  of 
secondary  schools  and  of  college  admission  requirements, 
"the  proper  limits,  the  best  methods  of  instruction,  the 
m«st  desirable  allotment  of  time  for  the  subject,  and  the 
best  methods  of  testing  the  pupils'  attainments  therein." 
For  the  subjects  of  history,  civil  government,  and  po- 
litical economy,  a  sub-committee  of  ten  was  appointed 
which  met  in  Madison,  Wisconsin,  December,  1892.  In 
their  report  this  sub-committee  recommended  that  in 
school  programmes  there  be  given  to  history  not  less 
than  three  periods  a  week  for  eight  years,  of  which  four 
should  be  in  the  high  school  and  four  in  the  grammar 
grades.  Definite  and  detailed  recommendations  were 
made  as  to  methods  of  teaching,  qualifications  of  teachers, 
school  apparatus,  and  fields  and  topics  for  study.  By 
the  finding  of  this  conference  and  the  discussions  it 
aroused,  a  definite  impetus  was  given  to  the  study  of 
history  in  American  secondary  schools,  and  by  1896 
there  were  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  high  school 
pupils  studying  this  subject. 

Nevertheless,  though  other  national  and  State  educa- 
tional organizations  had  given  consideration  to  these 
matters,  no  general  agreement  had  yet  been  reached  as 
to  relative  values,  proper  order  and  place  in  the  school 
curriculum  of  the  different  subjects  of  history,  and  uni- 
formity as  to  aim  and  method  of  teaching.  In  view  of 
this  situation  the  American  Historical  Association,  in  the 
winter  of  1896,  appointed  a  committee  of  seven  members 
to  consider  history  in  the  secondary  schools  in  its  various 
aspects,  and  report  to  the  association.  This  committee 
gave  prolonged  and  detailed  consideration  to  the  subject 
referred  to  it  and  made  and  published  recommendations 
which  have  been  especially  influential. 


HISTORY  293 

This  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven  recommended 
that  where  possible  there  should  be  in  the  high  school 
curriculum  four  blocks  or  periods  covering  four  years, 
(i)  Ancient  history,  with  special  reference  to  Greek  and 
Roman,  but  with  a  brief  introductory  study  of  the  more 
ancient  nations,  and  extending  to  about  800  A.  D.  (2) 
Mediaeval  and  modern  European  history  from  the  close 
of  the  first  period  to  the  present.  (3)  English  history. 
(4)  American  history  and  civil  government.  For  those 
schools  where  four  years  for  history  appeared  impracti- 
cable, it  was  suggested  that  either  English  and  American 
history  be  combined  and  the  main  facts  of  English  history 
taught  through  American  colonial  and  later  political 
history,  or  that  English  history  be  treated  "in  such  a 
way  as  to  include  the  most  important  elements  of  medi- 
aeval and  modern  English  history."  The  committee  urged 
strongly  the  value  of  historical  study,  denied,  however, 
value  to  general  history,  discussed  at  length  methods  of 
teaching  and  qualifications  for  teachers  of  history,  com- 
pared American  with  foreign  teaching  of  this  subject, 
treated  briefly  of  history  below  the  high  school,  and  in 
various  other  ways  presented  much  helpful  material  for 
teachers.  The  teaching  of  history  in  the  secondary 
school  has  been  largely  shaped  by  this  report. 

A  Committee  of  Five  was  appointed  by  the  American 
Historical  Association  in  1907  to  determine  what  modi- 
fications, if  any,  were  needed  in  the  recommendations  of 
the  Committee  of  Seven.  The  report  of  this  later  com- 
mittee appeared  in  1911  and  in  very  large  degree  sup- 
ported the  recommendations  of  its  predecessor.  Recog- 
nizing the  growing  interest  in  the  study  of  modern  Eu- 
ropean history,  it  suggests  a  new  schedule  of  history 
courses.  Of  this  the  first  year  is  to  be  ancient  history 


294  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

as  in  the  recommendation  of  the  Committee  of  Seven; 
the  second  year  English  history  to  about  1760,  including 
the  chief  facts  of  general  European  history  and  of  Amer- 
ican colonial  history;  the  third  year  modern  European 
history  "including  such  introductory  matter  concerning 
later  mediaeval  institutions  and  the  beginnings  of  the 
modern  age  as  seems  wise  or  desirable,  and  giving  a 
suitable  treatment  of  English  history  from  1760";  the 
fourth  year  American  history  and  government,  so  appor- 
tioned that  two-fifths  of  the  year  shall  be  given  to  the 
separate  study  of  government.  The  report  presented, 
also,  fresh  and  pertinent  suggestions  as  to  method  of 
treatment  of  these  periods,  and  urged  that  the  time  had 
arrived  when  in  many  high  schools  three  years  of  his- 
tory should  be  required  of  all  pupils. 

Besides  the  National  Education  Association  and  the 
American  Historical  Association,  both  of  which  continue 
to  work  for  the  advancement  of  history  teaching,  other 
teachers'  organizations  have  rendered  great  help.  Es- 
pecially important  of  these  are  the  New  England  His- 
tory Teachers'  Association,  the  Association  of  History 
Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland,  and  the 
North  Central  History  Teachers'  Association.1 

The  Place  of  History  in  the  Curriculum. — While  there 
is  still  no  uniformity  of  practice,  the  majority  of  high 
schools  that  offer  four  years  of  history  follow  the  plan  of 
the  Committee  of  Seven,  and  those  that  offer  three  years 
commonly  place  ancient  history  in  the  second  year  of  the 
high  school,  either  mediaeval  and  modern  history  or  Eng- 
lish history  in  the  third  year,  and  American  history  and 
civics  in  the  fourth  year.  In  a  very  large  number  of  ele- 

*This  is  now  the  Teachers'  Section  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  His- 
torical Association. 


HISTORY  295 

mentary  schools  United  States  history  is  taught  in  the 
eighth  grade,  and  thus  quite  generally  the  beginnings 
of  history  study  have  been  made  before  the  pupil  enters 
high  school.  With  greatly  varying  content  and  emphasis, 
other  history  subjects  are  taught  in  lower  grades  of  the 
public  schools  of  some  of  the  States,  but  there  is  no  uni- 
formity of  practice  in  this  particular. 

Methods  of  Teaching. — In  this  subject,  as  in  all  others, 
methods  of  teaching  are  individual,  varying  with  the 
teacher  and  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is 
done.  Yet  there  are  three  recognized  methods  which 
may  be  considered  separately,  though  their  difference 
is  practically  one  of  emphasis.  To  some  teachers  the 
attainment  of  the  values  of  history  seems  possible  only 
through  a  study  of  source  material.  They  would  have 
their  pupils  get  information  and  draw  conclusions  not 
from  secondary  narratives  but  direct  from  the  raw  ma- 
terial of  history,  and  they  claim  for  this  method  greater 
vividness,  vitality,  and  interest,  more  real  training  of  the 
judgment,  and  generally  more  substantial  results  than 
from  any  other  method  of  study  of  the  subject.  Op- 
ponents of  this  method  contend  that  it  requires  more 
source  material  and  more  time  than  can  be  put  at  the 
disposal  of  high  school  pupilvand  that  it  demands  more 
maturity  of  judgment  and  trained  powers  of  investigation 
than  boys  and  girls  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of 
age  ordinarily  possess. 

To  some  the  topical  or  library  method  commends 
itself.  This  is  based  on  the  assignment  of  topics  and 
references  to  many  books  and  does  not  rely  on  a  narrative 
text-book,  though  it  may  be  directed  by  a  printed  syllabus. 
For  this  there  are  claimed  the  advantages  of  independence 
of  a  single  author's  interpretation  of  history,  the  acquisi- 
tion of  facility  in  the  use  of  books,  and  in  collecting,  com- 


296  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

paring,  and  estimating  data,  training  in  "the  art  of  bal- 
ancing probabilities  and  forming  defensible  opinions," 
and  greater  interest,  since  a  wider  reading  is  insured  and 
the  relations  of  history  are  more  appreciated.  The  dis- 
advantages urged  against  it  are  that  it  is  a  difficult  method 
for  all  but  experienced  teachers,  that  a  larger  reference 
library  is  required  than  is  ordinarily  provided  by  school 
authorities,  that  pupils  often  obtain  unconnected  infor- 
mation, and  that  the  expectation  that  pupils  will  profit 
from  the  reports  of  other  pupils  is  not  generally  realized 
because  of  the  inability  of  pupils  to  hold  the  attention  and 
interest  of  their  fellows. 

The  third  method  rests  upon  the  use  of  a  narrative 
text-book  in  which  regular  assignments  are  made,  and 
which  is  supplemented  by  assigned  readings  in  both 
source  and  secondary  materials.  This  obviously  con- 
tains elements  of  both  the  other  methods,  but  it  claims 
the  special  advantages  of  being  more  serviceable  for  the 
inexperienced  teacher,  of  giving  greater  promise  of  the 
mastery  of  essential  fact  material,  of  insuring  organization 
and  order  for  the  knowledge  acquired,  and  of  affording  at 
the  same  time  opportunity  for  securing  for  the  pupil  inter- 
est in  the  subject  and  all  the  values  that  the  study  pos- 
sesses. Absolutely  essential,  however,  to  this  method  are 
painstaking  care  and  judgment  in  the  use  of  the  text- 
book, and  skill  and  persistence  in  the  preparing  and  di- 
recting of  the  pupils'  supplementary  reading. 

The  successful  use  of  the  text-book  imperatively  de- 
mands of  the  teacher  not  merely  adequacy  of  knowledge 
of  the  general  subject  of  history,  but  precise  knowledge 
of  the  content  of  each  lesson  in  the  text-book,  for  it  must 
be  recognized  that  text-book  material  has  varying  values: 
some  of  it  is  of  prime  importance  and  must  be  accurately 
learned;  some,  having  a  subordinate  or  illustrative  value, 


HISTORY  297 

needs  to  be  understood  but  not  to  be  learned,  and  some 
may  even  be  disregarded.  Moreover,  it  is  the  pupil's 
right  to  know  in  advance  of  study  what  these  values  are 
and  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  make  these  known.  There- 
fore, the  assignment  of  the  lesson  to  the  pupils  should  be 
so  specific  as  to  indicate  exactly  what  of  the  text  they 
must  learn  and  what  may  be  slighted.  Furthermore,  the 
assignment  should  be  interpretative  to  the  extent  of  insur- 
ing that  the  pupils  when  they  begin  the  study  of  the  lesson 
shall  not  be  confronted  with  problems  of  language  or  idea 
too  difficult  for  their  unaided  comprehension;  also,  it 
should  contain  the  problem  element  so  that  other  mental 
processes  besides  memory  shall  be  brought  into  the  study 
of  the  lesson,  and  it  should  be  given  in  such  form  that  the 
pupils  may  make  a  careful  written  record  of  it.  The 
best  method  of  keeping  this  record  is  in  a  loose-leaf  note- 
book which  may  well  be  made  the  repository  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  pupil's  written  work,  such  as  notes  on  out- 
side reading,  topic  or  chapter  outlines,  brief  written  tests, 
and  outline  maps. 

Success  in  directing  the  supplementary  reading  of 
pupils  is  made  difficult  in  very  many  schools  by  a  lack 
of  library  facilities,  and  especially  by  a  failure  to  provide 
enough  copies  of  the  same  books.  The  problem  contains 
these  elements:  The  selection  from  the  available  books 
of  material  really  supplementary  to  the  essential  facts 
of  the  text-book;  such  a  method  of  assigning  this  read- 
ing as  shall  make  clear  to  the  pupil  both  precisely  where 
and  precisely  what  the  facts  are  that  he  is  to  search  for; 
the  making  the  available  books  as  accessible  as  possible 
for  all,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  time  demands  of  this 
outside  reading  to  the  other  school  demands  upon  the 
pupil;  and  the  devising  of  adequate  means  for  securing 


298  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  faithful  performance  of  the  tasks  set.  The  amount 
of  this  supplementary  reading  must  vary  with  the  ex- 
perience and  skill  of  the  teacher,  the  maturity  and  pro- 
ficiency of  the  pupils,  and  the  library  facilities  of  the 
school.  The  recommendation  of  the  Committee  of  the 
North  Central  History  Teachers'  Association  in  1908 
set  the  minimum  achievement  "in  carefully  selected 
supplementary  reading"  thus:  "In  ane«ent  history,  200 
pages;  mediaeval  and  modern  history,  each,  150  pages; 
English  history,  300  pages,  and  American  history,  350 
pages;  of  all  of  which  one-fourth  should  be  source  ma- 
terial." 

Aids  to  Teaching. — Most  facts  of  history  have  vital 
relations  of  time  and  place,  so  that,  involved  with  the 
questions  of  what  and  why,  are  also  the  questions  of  when 
and  where.  The  element  of  chronology  it  is  desirable  to 
reduce  to  its  lowest  terms,  but  certain  pivotal  dates  are 
absolutely  necessary,  and  should  be  fastened  by  drill, 
time  charts,  frequent  questioning  as  to  contemporary 
happenings,  and  all  other  suitable  devices.  The  relation 
of  geography  to  history  involves  more  elements  than 
space  and  distance,  and  the  student  must  be  taught  very 
early  to  interpret  a  map  in  terms  of  the  physiographic 
features  it  presents  and  to  respect  the  significance  of 
these.  Wall  maps,  charts  of  historical  geography,  the 
maps  and  plans  of  the  text-book,  and  atlas  and  outline 
maps  are  all  valuable  aids.  In  the  first  two  marked  im- 
provement has  been  made  in  recent  years,  so  that  clear- 
ness and  simplicity,  due  emphasis  on  physiographical 
features,  and  accuracy  are  now  characteristic  of  them. 
The  history  text-book  is  not  now  considered  adequate 
unless  it  contains  many  maps  to  illustrate  and  re-enforce 
the  narrative.  Outline  maps  lend  themselves  admirahl/ 


HISTORY  299 

to  the  developing  and  testing  of  the  geographical  knowl- 
edge of  pupils,  but  should  be  used  with  a  clear  recognition 
of  two  dangers — one,  that  too  great  a  dependence  on  them 
keeps  the  pupil  from  acquiring,  through  practice  in  mak- 
ing his  own  outline  maps,  a  real  knowledge  of  continent 
coast-line  or  territorial  shape;  and  the  other,  that  the 
picture-drawing  feature,  especially  where  coloring  of  po- 
litical areas  is  resorted  to,  becomes  an  end  in  itself. 

There  are  other  aids  which  every  well-equipped  class 
room  should  have,  especially  illustrative  material  in  the 
form  of  pictures,  busts,  and  models.  The  first  named, 
for  the  wall  and  for  individual  use,  are  now  provided  at 
small  cost  by  many  dealers,  and  in  great  variety.  The 
stereopticon  and  reflectoscope  are  of  the  highest  value  as 
agencies  of  illustration.  Under  the  stimulus  of  the  ex- 
ample of  foreign  manufacturers,  especially  of  Germany, 
the  sources  of  illustrative  material  of  all  these  sorts  are 
multiplying  in  our  country. 

Civil  Government. — Civil  government  is  taught  through 
and  with  history,  and,  in  addition,  is  commonly  allotted 
its  special  portion  of  time.  Thir  allotment  is  usually  in 
the  senior  year,  where  it  sometimes  precedes  the  course 
in  United  States  history,  but  commonly  follows  it.  To 
make  it  the  effective  training  for  citizenship  that  it  is 
designed  to  be,  every  effort  must  be  employed  to  give  it 
concreteness  and  to  implant  in  the  pupils  high  ideals  of 
citizenship  as  well  as  information.  These  ideals  are  best 
inculcated  when  the  pupils  are  made  to  realize  fully  that 
they  are  already  citizens  and  possess  present  duties  and 
responsibilities  in  connection  with  both  the  school  and  the 
community  life,  and  are  kindled  to  a  real  zeal  for  the  dis- 
charge of  these  obligations.  Concreteness  can  be  given 
to  the  subject  by  identifying  it  as  fully  as  possible  with 


300  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

those  aspects  of  government  most  near  to  the  pupils  and 
most  easily  observed  and  studied  in  their  every-day  work- 
ings. Visits  to  the  various  departments  of  local  govern- 
ment, talks  to  the  class  by  local  government  officials,  the 
possession  for  purposes  of  examination  and  study  of  as 
many  legal  and  political  documents  as  possible  that  are 
part  of  the  machinery  of  government — all  assist  in  giv- 
ing reality  and  vitality  to  this  subject  instead  of  permit- 
ting it  to  seem  merely  a  school  study. 

Political  Economy. — The  last  two  decades  have  seen 
greater  emphasis  laid  on  the  economic  aspects  of  history, 
and  in  consequence  the  high  school  student  has  received 
more  training  in  the  principles  of  political  economy 
through  his  history  study  than  was  once  the  case.  The 
Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion, because  of  the  lack  of  adequately  prepared  teachers 
and  proper  text-books,  recommended  that  this  subject 
be  not  taught  as  a  separate  study  in  the  high  schools. 
But  the  increase  in  the  number  of  commercial  high  schools 
and  the  growing  demand  for  commercial  subjects  have 
operated  to  improve  the  text-books  and  the  qualifications 
of  teachers,  and  the  study  has  now  an  independent  status 
in  many  school  programmes.  The  methods  of  teaching 
demanded  by  it  are  essentially  those  of  history  and  civics; 
success,  however,  requires  an  even  larger  use  of  illustra- 
tive material  and  of  the  facts  of  the  pupil's  environment, 
to  the  end  that  the  subject  of  economics  shall  be  made  real 
and  closely  related  to  his  every-day  life.  Purely  text- 
book work  in  this  subject  is  peculiarly  ineffective,  and 
consequently  it  makes  all  the  greater  demand  upon  the 
knowledge,  the  enthusiasm,  the  skill,  and  the  resource- 
fulness of  the  teacher.  Reports  on  outside  reading,  de- 
bates, study  of  current  topics,  close  scrutiny  of  local 


HISTORY  301 

economic  problems  and  conditions,  all  must  be  brought 
into  service. 

Unusual  Demand  on  Teacher  of  History. — History, 
civics,  and  economics  poorly  taught  have  even  less  value 
as  instruments  of  education  than  the  older  subjects  of  the 
high  school  curriculum  when  inadequately  handled.  For 
the  former  do  not  of  themselves  furnish  a  strong  stimulus 
to  intellectual  energy.  Whatever  liberalizing  influence 
the  reading  of  history  may  have  for  the  thoughtful  adult, 
it  is  for  the  average  boy  and  girl  but  a  superficial  process, 
not  possessed  of  great  value.  History  must  be  inter- 
preted for  the  high  school  pupil;  the  skilful  teacher  must 
take  him  back  of  words  and  phrases  into  the  meaning, 
and  must  put  the  problem  element  into  the  subject  so 
that  the  pupil  may  be  made  to  think  while  he  reads.  In 
many  other  subjects  the  teacher  has  the  aid  of  recitation 
features  that  serve  to  fix  the  attention,  as  the  text  does 
for  the  student  of  language,  or  the  blackboard  figure  and 
the  algebra  problem  in  black  and'white  do  for  the  student 
of  mathematics,  or  the  tangible  material  of  the  laboratory 
does  for  the  student  of  science.  The  teacher  of  history 
and  of  its  allied  subjects  lacks  these  auxiliaries,  and  must 
supply  from  his  own  personality  or  resources  as  a  teacher 
a  correspondingly  larger  power  to  interest  and  to  hold 
the  attention  of  pupils.  It  is  still  sometimes  the  case 
that  any  teacher  of  the  high  school  force  who  seems  to  be 
not  fully  occupied  is  judged  competent  to  take  the  courses 
in  history,  but  it  is  more  and  more  recognized  that  the 
subject  really  calls  for  special  qualifications  and  prepared- 
ness. 

Preparation  of  Teacher  of  History. — This  preparation 
should  consist  first  of  all  in  adequate  knowledge  of  the 
subject  This  operates  for  the  teacher's  success  in  a 

itf  AYR  T  '-TOR 

ttftNTA 


302  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

variety  of  ways.  It  insures  that  truth,  not  misinforma- 
tion, will  be  the  portion  of  the  pupil;  it  enables  the  teacher 
to  enrich  the  recitation  by  positive  contribution  of  worth- 
ful  fact,  by  clear  interpretation  of  difficult  material,  and 
by  illuminating  illustration;  it  inspires  the  respect  of 
the  pupil  which  in  turn  begets  that  docility  which  is 
truly  the  beginning  of  wisdom,  and  it  affords  to  the 
teacher  in  the  class  room  independence  of  the  text-book, 
and  gives  him  better  mastery  of  discipline;  it  places  time 
at  his  disposal  for  the  deliberate  consideration  of  ques- 
tions of  method  and  for  devising  ways  and  means  of 
giving  superlative  effectiveness  to  the  recitation. 

The  prospective  teacher  in  his  own  study  of  history 
should  have  two  aims:  first,  to  gain  a  general  knowledge 
of  each  of  the  four  fields  taught  in  the  high  school,  such 
as  would  be  secured  from  a  year's  college  course  in  each; 
second,  such  intensive  study  of  selected  periods  as  will 
suffice  to  secure  appreciation  of  the  task  and  the  methods 
of  the  historian  and  to  become  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  historical  criticism. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  he  should  have  some  degree 
of  scholarly  grasp  of  his  subject.  He  should  also  under- 
stand the  times  in  which  he  lives,  he  should  understand 
boys  and  girls,  and  should  have  an  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  the  services  which  the  high  school  is  expected  to 
render  to  society.  To  know  his  own  times  he  needs  to  be 
as  broadly  trained  as  possible,  through  a  range  of  sub- 
jects that  interpret  life,  society,  and  government.  The 
demand  for  broad  outlook  on  life  and  for  broad  human 
sympathies  is  made  with  special  force  of  teachers  of  his- 
tory because  in  the  complex  of  forces  and  agencies  that 
have  made  history,  the  same  influences  have  been  active 
that  make  up  the  life  of  to-day.  So  that  it  is  as  true  that 


HISTORY  303 

one  must  know  his  own  times  in  order  to  understand  the 
past  as  it  is  that  one  must  know  the  past  in  order  to  com- 
prehend the  present. 

The  innate  and  often  unrealized  understanding  of  boy 
and  girl  nature  is  doubtless  that  quality  which  "born 
teachers"  have  in  an  unusual  degree,  enabling  them 
skilfully  to  adapt  methods  of  teaching  and  subject- 
matter  to  their  pupils'  needs.  Some  of  this  sort  of  grasp 
the  prospective  teacher  must  seek  from  courses  of  study 
on  psychology  and  educational  theory,  especially  related 
to  the  period  of  adolescence.  His  knowledge  of  history 
must  be  reshaped  and  worked  over  with  a  view  to  meet- 
ing the  needs  of  immature  minds;  he  must  endeavor  to 
gain  through  courses  on  methods  an  acquaintance  with 
some  of  the  special  problems  that  history  teaching  pre- 
sents; and  through  observation  of  the  work  of  skilled 
teachers  and  through  practice  ^rork  under  expert  guid- 
ance he  should  seek  skill  in  presenting  the  subject  to 
the  immature. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

DRAWING,  FREE-HAND  AND  MECHANICAL 

WALTER  SARGENT 

PROFESSOR  OF  FINE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ART  IN  RELATION  TO 
EDUCATION,  CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 

Importance  of  Art  Study. — The  fine  arts  of  all  cen- 
turies present  concrete  embodiments  of  certain  phases  of 
human  experience  which  have  no  other  adequate  language, 
and  which  are  comparable  in  importance  and  influence  to 
the  experiences  expressed  through  literature  and  music. 
Where  acquaintance  with  art  is  lacking,  the  individual  is 
largely  shut  out  from  these  significant  fields  of  human  ex- 
pression and  interpretation. 

Appreciation  of  art  means  ability  to  avail  oneself  of 
the  interpretations  of  these  phases  of  human  experience. 
This  results  not  only  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  particular 
objects  of  art  studied,  but  also  in  appreciation  of  the  type 
of  beauty  which  these  works  of  art  embody  when  it  oc- 
curs in  nature;  because  it  is  generally  true  that  the  finer 
effects  of  natural  beauty  are  evident  to  the  majority  only 
after  they  have  been  interpreted  into  some  form  of  artis- 
tic expression.  In  other  words,  things  become  pictu- 
resque after  they  have  been  pictured.  Thus,  one  who  has 
come  to  enjoy  a  great  landscape,  perhaps  by  Corot  or 
Turner,  or  an  unusually  subtle  type  of  human  beauty, 
as  the  "Unknown  Lady  of  the  Louvre,"  finds  that  he 

304 


DRAWING  305 

recognizes  in  familiar  landscapes  or  in  actual  faces  effects 
of  beauty  which  the  artist  has  interpreted  for  him  and 
which  he  would  not  have  noticed  but  for  his  acquaint- 
ance with  that  interpretation. 

Function  of  Art  in  Public  Education. — One's  unaided 
observation  soon  develops  a  narrow  range  of  preferences, 
and  is  not  likely,  unaided,  to  expand  this  by  the  appre- 
ciation and  enjoyment  of  new  types.  Art  embodies  the 
observational  inheritance  of  the  race.  The  aesthetic 
function  of  art  in  public  education  is  to  open  a  broader 
range  of  beauty  to  the  individual,  to  make  significant 
and  enjoyable  things  that  otherwise  would  have  remained 
unnoticed,  and  to  accustom  the  eye  to  delight  in  graceful 
forms  and  harmonious  colors  to  a  degree  that  is  not 
possible  without  some  special  instruction. 

The  Demand  for  Beauty  Innate. — Artistic  expression 
appears  not  only  in  painting  and  sculpture  but  in  the 
forms  of  necessary  articles  of  use.  The  demand  for 
beauty  in  the  design  and  decoration  of  constructed  ob- 
jects and  in  every-day  surroundings  manifests  itself  as 
early  in  human  history  as  the  demand  for  utility.  Cer- 
tain principles  of  preference  in  matters  of  shape  and 
color  and  arrangement  appear  to  be  inherent  in  human 
nature.  These  insure  a  ready  response  to  the  right  sort 
of  stimulus,  so  that  some  degree  of  good  taste  in  design 
may  easily  be  developed. 

This  desire  for  design  and  decoration  is  insistent,  and, 
if  untrained,  indulges  in  profusion  of  ornament,  crude 
forms,  and  startling  colors  in  the  attempt  to  find  satisfac- 
tion in  mere  repetition  of  strong  sensations.  It  misses  the 
keen  pleasure  experienced  by  those  who  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  transitory  attractiveness  of  mere 
prettiness  and  the  permanent  and  vitalizing  enjoyment 


306  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

of  beautiful  things.  Standards  of  taste  are  not  mere 
individual  preferences,  but  are  based  on  certain  elements 
innate  in  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind. 

Art  is  thus  called  upon  to  exert  its  influence  in  the  field 
of  industry  by  human  demands  so  fundamental  that  no 
commercial  nation  can  afford  either  from  a  social  or  from 
an  industrial  stand-point  to  neglect  them. 

Working  Drawings. — One  highly  specialized  form  of 
graphic  expression  is  that  of  working  drawings.  So  long 
as  constructive  work  remains  simple  and  the  materials 
inexpensive  and  easily  handled,  processes  may  be  carried 
on  by  experimenting  with  actual  material  and  reshaping 
it  whenever  necessary  to  secure  the  desired  results.  As 
soon  as  problems  become  complicated  and  materials 
expensive,  such  a  method  is  uneconomical  in  time  and 
cost. 

To  meet  the  demands,  a  universal  language  of  form 
has  been  developed  by  which  processes  and  results  may 
be  accurately  predetermined.  Diagrams,  patterns,  and 
the  highly  developed  conventions  of  working  drawing 
furnish  a  medium  by  which  constructive  ideas  may  be 
carried  to  detailed  perfection  and  the  external  world  of 
stubborn  materials  mastered  to  a  great  degree  in  terms 
of  a  language. 

History  of  Art  Study  in  America. — The  following  state- 
ments regarding  the  history  of  this  subject  in  American 
public  education  are  gathered  largely  from  the  report  of 
1880  on  American  Education  in  Fine  and  Industrial  Art, 
prepared  under  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  by 
J.  Edwards  Clarke  in  response  to  a  Senate  resolution 
requesting  a  statement  "relative  to  the  development  of 
instruction  in  drawing  as  applied  to  the  industrial  or  fine 
arts  .  .  .  with  special  reference  to  the  utility  of  such 


DRAWING  307 

instruction  in  promoting  the  arts  and  industries  of  the 
people." 

In  1749  Benjamin  Franklin  in  his  "Proposed  Hints  for 
an  Academy,"  recommended  drawing  as  one  of  the  sub- 
jects to  be  taught.  In  1821  William  Bentley  Fowle,  an 
original  thinker,  but  evidently  without  much  previous 
experience  in  teaching,  became  master  of  a  large  boys' 
school  in  Boston.  He  introduced  blackboards  into 
Boston  schools;  and  on  these  blackboards  and  on  paper 
or  slates,  pupils  drew  maps  and  in  addition  to  this  use  in 
geography,  "linear  drawing  .  .  .  was  made  a  regular 
exercise." 

As  early  as  1838,  Henry  Barnard  who  was  later  ap- 
pointed as  the  first  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, delivered  in  many  parts  of  the  country  an  address 
on  industrial  education  in  which  he  urged  that  drawing 
be  taught  in  the  common  schools. 

Rembrandt  Peale,  an  artist  in  Philadelphia,  taught 
drawing  as  a  branch  of  general  education  in  the  schools, 
from  about  1840  to  1844.  In  Baltimore,  Mr.  William 
Minifie  taught  drawing  in  1848  and  1849. 

The  innovations  of  Mr.  Fowle,  Mr.  Peale,  and  Mr. 
Minifie  aroused  much  opposition  among  some  school 
officials,  and  on  this  account  their  connection  with  the 
public  schools  as  teachers  of  drawing  was  brief.  How- 
ever, these  and  other  sporadic  cases  in  different  locali- 
ties were  indicative  of  a  growing  interest  in  the  subject. 
Their  arguments  for  drawing  were  mainly  that  it  sup- 
plied a  primary  need  of  education.  The  industrial  value 
of  the  subject  was  made  prominent  but  secondary.  Later, 
the  industrial  argument  was  made  the  major  considera- 
tion by  those  interested  in  the  matter,  and  it  was  on  this 
basis  that  in  1870  drawing  was  by  legislative  enactment 


308  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

made  a  required  subject  in  the  public  schools  of  Massa- 
chusetts. This  State  at  this  time  secured  the  services 
of  Mr.  Walter  Smith  from  England.  He  instructed 
teachers,  addressed  meetings  throughout  the  State,  and 
became  first  principal  of  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art 
School.  Training  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try were  also  established,  and  the  supply  of  well-pre- 
pared special  teachers  steadily  increased. 

The  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876 
exerted  a  peculiarly  strong  influence  in  favor  of  public  art 
education.  The  educational  and  industrial  exhibitions 
were  a  revelation  to  the  American  people  of  the  possi- 
bilities and  of  their  own  shortcomings  along  this  line. 
The  movement  for  greater  opportunities  for  instruction 
in  drawing,  design,  and  industrial  work  received  a  fresh 
impulse.  V 

Recognition  of  the  arts  in  high  school  courses  has  been 
general  during  the  past  decade.  The  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education1  received  in  1909  returns  from  620 
high  schools;  572  included  fine  or  industrial  art  in 
their  courses.  In  455  of  these  schools  this  subject  has 
been  introduced  since  the  beginning  of  the  year  1900.  In 
258  schools  art  work  is  required,  and  in  319  it  is  elective. 

Free-Hand  and  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Design. — The 
values  of  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing  and  design 
in  high  school  courses  are  now  regarded  somewhat  as 
follows:  Drawing  is  the  language  of  form  and  color 
and  a  means  of  recording  observation  and  experience. 
In  scientific  studies,  drawing  furnishes  a  convenient 
means  of  making  graphic  and  accurate  records  of  obser- 

1  Bulletin,  1909,  No.  6.  "Instruction  in  the  Fine  and  Manual  Arts  in 
the  United  States,"  by  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  editor  of  the  "  School  Arts 
Book." 


DRAWING  309 

vations  by  means  of  diagrams  and  correct  delineations  of 
form.  The  student  who  portrays  truthfully  the  facts 
which  he  is  studying,  not  only  records  his  observations, 
but  increases  the  clearness  of  these  observations.  His 
comparison  of  facts  of  structure  is  more  definite  because 
of  the  necessity  of  translating  these  facts  into  terms  of 
representation.  The  trustworthiness  of  the  record  of  his 
visual  sense  is  increased. 

In  constructive  industries,  graphic  representation  in 
the  form  of  working  drawings  has  become  a  specialized 
means  of  recording  fully  and  accurately  all  facts  of  form 
and  construction.  Working  drawings  may  present  a  per- 
fect record  of  any  sort  of  mechanical  construction.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  this  subject  is  necessary  alike  to 
the  architect  and  to  the  engineer  as  a  means  of  embodying 
his  ideas  previous  to  their  completion  in  actual  material, 
and  to  the  workman  as  an  adequate  guide  to  correct 
execution  of  these  ideas. 

In  the  form  of  free-hand  sketching,  drawing  offers  to 
the  industrial  worker  a  means  of  endless  experimentation 
and  continual  comparison  of  results,  which  become  a 
direct  stimulation  to  invention  and  give  opportunity  to 
think  out  plans  and  details  with  great  completeness,  before 
he  is  compelled  to  deal  with  actual  mechanical  proc- 
esses; to  accomplish  with  pencil  and  brush  in  terms 
of  patterns,  plans,  and  sketches  much  tentative  work 
that  would  otherwise  have  to  be  undertaken  with  ex- 
pensive and  stubborn  materials. 

Where  design  is  an  important  element,  free-hand 
drawing  furnishes  the  worker  a  method  of  experiment- 
ing with  different  arrangements  of  patterns  and  outlines, 
as  in  architecture,  printing,  ceramics,  textiles,  and  other 
industries,  where  good  proportions,  harmonious  coloring, 


310  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  beautiful  outline  are  demanded  equally  with  utility. 
This  practice  reinforced  by  acquaintance  with  examples 
of  fine  design  develops  an  appreciation  of  standards  of 
excellence  in  constructed  objects. 

Free-hand  drawing  also  offers  a  means  of  representing 
ideas  pictorially,  either  by  rapid  sketches,  or  by  finished 
drawings  which  imply  a  somewhat  thorough  study  of 
form,  perspective,  light  and  shade,  and  composition. 
The  pupil  thus  gains  experience  in  interpreting  the  visi- 
ble world  into  terms  of  pictorial  expression.  In  doing 
so,  he  is  compelled  to  analyze  his  visual  impressions;  to 
decide  what  are  the  characteristics  of  objects  or  scenes 
which,  if  reproduced,  will  represent  the  impression.  He 
learns  to  distinguish  between  those  things  which  are 
significant,  and  the  details  which,  though  present,  have 
little  to  do  with  the  general  effect.  If  the  right  sort  of 
attention  has  been  given  to  this  subject  in  elementary 
grades,  the  average  standard  of  attainment  in  high 
schools  advances  beyond  what  is  generally  supposed 
possible.  Results  prove  that  special  talent  is  no  more  a 
factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in  those  phases  of  the  arts 
which  appear  in  public  schools,  than  in  the  mathematics, 
music,  and  literature  which  are  there  presented.  Though 
one  may  produce  very  ordinary  work  in  free-hand  draw- 
ing, the  study  of  form  and  matching  of  colors  which  are 
necessary  to  representation,  however  crude,  increases 
one's  understanding  and  enjoyment  of  nature,  and  proves 
an  effective  introduction  to  acquaintance  with  the  fine 
arts,  because  it  deals  with  the  same  means  of  expression 
that  the  artist  uses. 

Instruction  in  design  has  as  its  aim  development  of 
good  taste  regarding  the  things  which  constitute  every- 
day environment,  a  knowledge  of  the  most  artistic  prod- 


DRAWING  311 

ucts  of  common  industries,  and  acquaintance  with  ex- 
amples of  good  sculpture,  architecture,  and  construction, 
not  simply  in  ancient  productions,  but  also  in  such  mod- 
ern applications  as  local  industrial  products,  in  styles 
of  design  which  relate  to  private  homes,  inexpensive  as 
well  as  otherwise;  in  the  best  modern  solutions  of  such 
problems  as  public  buildings,  railway  stations,  bridges, 
parks  and  their  accessories,  streets  and  street  fixtures, 
fountains,  etc. 

A  comparison  of  typical  high  school  courses  shows  that 
drawing  from  traditional  still-life  groups  of  objects,  accom- 
panied by  criticism  regarding  general  technical  excellence 
from  the  point  of  view  of  an  artist,  is  being  largely  super- 
seded by  lines  of  work  planned  definitely  to  meet  the 
general  and  particular  needs  of  the  students. 

Courses  in  Drawing. — While  courses  differ  in  various 
localities,  they  usually  include  in  some  form  or  other 
the  following: 

1.  Training  planned  to  give  further  development  in  a 
line,  the  foundation  for  which  should  be  well  laid  in  the 
elementary  schools,  namely,  a  mastery  of  such  illustra- 
tive or  descriptive  drawing  as  does  not  require  special 
talent,  but  does  give  to  the  person  of  average  ability 
power  to  use  drawing  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  and 
facility  as  a  means  of  common  expression.     This  implies 
ability  to  sketch  rapidly  with  what  might  be  called 
"conversational  drawing"  where  the  purpose  is  to  con- 
vey ideas.     It  implies  also  such  drawing  as  is  valuable  in 
connection  with  the  sciences,  where  the  purpose  is  not 
pictorial  effect,  but  accurate  record  of  observation  and 
correct  delineation  of  facts. 

2.  Intensive  work  in  drawing,  painting,  and  model- 
ling, for  those  who  are  especially  interested  in  actual 


312  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

practice  either  because  they  plan  to  continue  their  studies 
in  art  schools  or  because  the  work  is  a  matter  of  general 
interest  on  account  of  the  insight  it  gives  into  the  field 
of  art  and  the  beauties  of  form  and  color  in  nature. 

These  more  intensive  courses  generally  include: 

Object  drawing,  for  the  sake  of  ability  to  represent 
proportions,  solidity,  and  texture  of  objects  by  means  of 
line,  light,  and  shade,  values  and  color. 

Figure  sketching  for  the  sake  of  action  and  propor- 
tion. 

Plant  drawing  to  express  the  grace  and  beauty  of 
natural  forms. 

Landscape  sketching,  to  interpret  effects  of  nature,  and 
to  lead  pupils  to  discover,  in  the  complexity  which  nature 
presents,  the  few  significant  elements  which  produce 
the  impression.  Landscape  study  is  frequently  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  the  camera  in  searching  out  good 
compositions  and  fine  interpretations  of  familiar  locali- 
ties. 

Some  courses  supplement  practical  work  with  illus- 
trated lectures  and  required  readings  which  aim  to  give 
a  broad  survey  of  the  development  of  art,  some  idea  of 
its  meaning,  and  a  degree  of  response  to  its  appeal. 

3.  Working  drawing,  which  aims  to  develop  ability  to 
present,  by  means  of  the  accepted  conventions  of  the 
draughting  room,  complete  and  accurate  information  re- 
garding simple  forms  of  construction.  This  implies  a 
knowledge  of  instruments  and  terms,  some  practice  in 
orthographic  projection,  and  a  thorough  mastery  of  free- 
hand sketching  of  working  drawings  with  dimensions, 
and  of  perspective  appearances. 

An  increasingly  clear  distinction  is  now  being  made  be- 
tween mere  instrumental  drawing  which  may  present  im- 


DRAWING  313 

pressive  results,  and  yet  require  little  practical  knowledge 
beyond  the  mere  manipulation  of  instruments,  and  the 
ability  to  make  free-hand  sketches  which  embody  all 
necessary  information,  and  which  may  at  any  time  be 
translated  into  finished  instrumental  drawings.  Conse- 
quently, classes  in  working  drawing  are  giving  more  at- 
tention to  that  free-hand  drawing  in  terms  of  which  the 
first  stages  of  most  constructive  thinking  are  expressed. 

4.  Such  general  work  in  design  as  shall  develop  good 
standards  of  taste  in  those  things  which  make  up  the 
furnishing  of  homes  and  ordinary  surroundings,  and, 
also,  more  complete  courses  in  constructive  and  decora- 
tive design,  in  recognition  of  the  increasing  demand  of 
the  commercial  world  for  competent  workers  in  indus- 
trial art. 

This  may  well  be  intimately  associated  with  the  prob- 
lems in  connection  with  the  department  of  household 
arts,  with  local  industries  and  their  artistic  history  and 
possibilities,  and  with  the  civic  art  for  which  every  com- 
munity finds  a  need.  A  person  sufficiently  educated  to 
know  how  the  Acropolis  or  the  Roman  Forum  appears 
should  know,  as  well,  how  the  various  civic  features  of  an 
American  community  might  appear  under  wise  planning. 

Preparation  in  Elementary  Schools. — Opinions  from  a 
number  of  high  school  instructors  in  drawing  indicate  that 
the  most  desirable  preparation  which  elementary  schools 
can  provide  is  as  follows: 

1.  Ability  to  make  with  lead  pencil  sincere  and  truth- 
ful representations  of  simple  objects  so  as  to  show  gen- 
eral   characteristics,    correct   proportions,    and    typical 
effects  of  foreshortening  and  solidity,  and,  in  natural 
forms,  the  growth,  structure,  and  shape. 

2.  A  habit  of  using  rapid,  general  descriptive  drawing. 


314  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

3.  Appreciation  of  good  proportions,  of  the  simpler 
forms  of  natural  and  conventional  beauty,  and  of  color 
effects;   ability  to  match  given  tones  with  water-colors, 
and  to  lay  flat  washes  of  color. 

4.  Ability  to  take  trustworthy  measurements,  to  make 
and  use  patterns  and  simple  working  drawings,  to  use 
the  more  common  instruments,  such  as  rule,  compass, 
T-square,  and  triangles,  and  to  print  readily  and  free- 
hand a  good  alphabet. 

5.  A  general  sympathetic  attitude  toward  art. 

Place  of  Drawing  in  High  School. — The  tendency  in 
high  school  courses  in  drawing  appears  to  be  toward 
making  it  a  required  subject  in  the  first,  and  often  in  the 
second  year,  and  optional  afterward,  except  for  students 
who  are  planning  to  attend  normal  schools.  For  these 
it  is  frequently  required  during  the  last  year.  The 
amount  of  time  ranges  in  general  from  two  to  five  periods 
a  week.  Many  schools  grant  the  same  credit  as  in  the 
other  unprepared  subjects.  The  usual  maximal  allow- 
ance for  credit  appears  to  be  two  units. 

Importance  of  Drawing  in  Mechanical  Pursuits. — Ig- 
norance of  the  influence  of  the  arts  of  design  upon  the 
industrial  progress  of  a  country,  and  the  persistence  of 
traditions  to  the  effect  that  a  practical  use  of  draw- 
ing requires  special  talent,  and  that  response  to  the  in- 
fluence of  art  is  possible  for  only  a  few,  have,  in  the 
past,  been  serious  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  art  in 
general  education.  There  is  now  a  growing  realization 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  for  any  State  to  maintain 
eminence  in  the  higher  manufactures  if  the  great  body 
of  workmen  in  other  countries  are  better  skilled  in  the 
arts  of  design. 

To  quote  from  statements  in  the  previously  mentioned 


DRAWING  315 

report  of  the  Bureau  of  Education :  "  In  all  matters  of 
construction,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  it  (drawing) 
takes  the  place  of  a  knowledge  of  reading  and  writing  in 
the  other  concerns  of  life,  and  is  indispensable  for  giving 
and  receiving  intelligible  ideas.  A  mechanic  who  is  with- 
out it  will  almost  always  be  subservient  and  inferior  to 
one  who  has  it,  but  is  his  inferior  in  most  other  respects. 

"  Drawing  is  the  language  of  mechanics,  and  ability  to 
use  the  pencil  freely  lies  at  the  foundation  of  success  in 
many  mechanical  pursuits." 

Development   of   Public    Taste. — Experiments    on   a 
large  scale  indicate  also  that  good  taste  in  matters  ofv 
design,  and  a  high  degree  of  enjoyment  of  beauty  in- 
nature  and  in  art,  may  be  definitely  developed  in  the 
majority  of  people. 

The  scientific  and  industrial  values  of  drawing  and 
design  are  easily  seen  when  attention  is  called  to  them, 
and  recognition  is  readily  accorded  to  them.  Less  ob- 
vious, but  no  less  real,  are  the  possibilities  of  opening  up 
the  realm  of  aesthetics  to  the  majority  of  people  by  means 
of  these  subjects,  and  thus  of  presenting  a  new  field  of 
experience  and  enjoyment  and  furnishing  an  appropriate 
response  to  those  fundamental  desires  for  beauty  which 
insist  on  gratification  and  seek  it  in  gaudy  appeals  to  sen- 
sation if  not  led  to  know  the  actual  sources  of  satisfac- 
tion. 

Training  of  the  Teacher. — The  personality  and  train- 
ing of  the  instructors  are  frequently  more  important 
factors  in  advancing  the  status  of  drawing  in  high  schools 
than  formal  arguments  as  to  its  value.  One  serious  ob- 
stacle has  been  the  frequent  narrow  specialization  in 
preparation  which  results  in  a  lack  of  appreciation  of 
the  possibilities  of  the  situation  and  a  tendency  to  make 


316  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

all  pupils  conform  to  given  methods  and  work  toward 
a  single  end. 

Technical  training  is  the  first  qualification  for  an  in- 
structor and  should  be  thorough  and  include  not  only 
advanced  practice  in  drawing  and  painting  and  design, 
such  as  a  complete  course  in  a  good  art  school  furnishes, 
but  also  some  experimental  acquaintance  with  construc- 
tive processes  in  wood  or  metal. 

The  high  school  teacher  of  art  should  also  be  familiar 
with  the  history  of  education  in  general,  the  place  high 
schools  occupy  in  the  educational  system,  and  the  more 
important  general  problems  of  high  school  education:  how 
they  differ  from  those  of  elementary  schools  and  also 
from  those  of  colleges  or  of  special  schools,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, of  art  schools.  He  should  also  know  the  history 
of  his  own  subject,  its  place  in  education,  and  its  relation 
to  the  life  of  the  community. 

Especially  should  he  be  familiar  with  methods  of  edu- 
cational experimentation  so  that  he  may  face  his  work 
as  a  scientific  problem  and  investigate  it  in  the  light  of 
results.  In  this  way  only  can  he  add  definitely  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  ways  in  which  ability  to  draw  is  most 
readily  cultivated  and  made  usable,  and  of  the  methods 
by  which  aesthetic  appreciation  is  developed. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MUSIC  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

CHARLES  HUBERT  FARNSWORTH 
PROFESSOR  OF  MUSIC,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

" Education,"  as  President  Butler  says,  "should  be  a 
gradual  adjustment  to  the  spiritual  possessions  of  the 
race,"  and  a  music  course  fails  utterly  if  it  does  not  give 
the  student  such  an  adjustment  with  reference  to  music, 
not  only  increasing  his  capacity  for  making  music,  but, 
even  more  important,  heightening  his  enjoyment  of  what 
he  hears,  whether  in  the  street  or  home,  church  or 
theatre. 

Music  Courses  in  High  Schools. — Music  courses  offered 
in  high  schools  may  be  roughly  grouped  under  three 
heads: 

1.  General  chorus  work,  to  which  one  period  a  week 
is  given,  where  the  entire  school  unites,  required  of  all, 
demanding  no  knowledge  or  skill,  and  for  which  no  credit 
is  given. 

2.  A  chorus  period,  supplemented  by  a  class  lesson, 
where  some  technical  knowledge  connected  with  sight 
singing,  tone  production,  and  interpretation  is  attempted. 
No  standards  of  entrance  requirements  are  demanded. 
The  work  leads  to  no  credit  and  is  generally  compulsory. 

3.  Elective  courses  in  harmony,  occasionally  counter- 
point and   musical  history,  tending  sometimes  toward 
appreciation,  and  voice  study. 

317 


318  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

These  classes  are  small  in  number,  are  conducted  like 
ordinary  school  work,  with  requirements  both  for  en- 
trance and  promotion.  The  work  is  sometimes  credited 
for  college  entrance,  but  more  often  it  has  recognition 
as  one  of  the  elective  subjects. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description  that  high 
school  music  is  not  in  the  true  sense  a  study;  it  makes  no 
demands  for  entrance,  nor  does  it  reach  any  definite 
goal.  It  is  primarily  a  musical  practice  for  the  social 
and  aesthetic  benefit  of  the  exercise. 

What  Should  the  Course  Be? — Let  us  consider  what  the 
musical  course  of  a  high  school  should  be,  classifying  it 
under  five  varieties  of  musical  activity. 

1.  Chorus  work — sight-singing. 

2.  Appreciation  courses. 

3.  Elective  courses  in  harmony,  composition,  form,  and 
history. 

4.  Glee  and  instrumental  clubs. 

5.  Private  work  done  outside  the  school. 

First,  there  should  be  chorus  work,  generally  known 
as  sight-singing.  Unlike  the  medium  of  poetry,  musical 
beauty  is  expressed  by  sound-groupings,  unique  in  this 
subject;  hence  the  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  music 
is  dependent  upon  the  power  of  discriminating  tone 
differences.  This  is  primarily  a  mental  act,  depending 
largely  upon  a  retentive  tone  memory.  No  form  of  ex- 
ercise so  develops  this  power  as  the  practice  of  singing 
from  notation.  For  when  this  is  done  the  student  is 
forced  to  think  tone  relationships  before  he  hears  them, 
thus  developing  the  power  of  forming  a  tonal  image. 
This  power  is  so  important  in  musical  development  that 
in  such  great  conservatories  as  that  of  Paris,  all  the  in- 
strumental players  as  well  as  students  of  composition 


MUSIC  319 

are  required  to  take  exhaustive  courses  in  sight-singing. 
Such  a  course  does  not  in  itself  have  aesthetic  value,  but 
as  a  means  for  sharpening  the  perceptive  powers  it  is 
perhaps  the  most  intensive  work  that  can  be  done  and 
should  form  the  backbone  of  general  musical  training. 

Music  Compared  with  Other  Art  Subjects. — Comparing 
music  with  the  other  subjects  that  have  to  do  with  train- 
ing in  aesthetics,  or  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  we  find  some- 
what similar  conditions.  The  art  training,  because  of 
the  individual  nature  of  the  product  of  this  activity,  is 
better  classified  than  is  music,  the  advanced  classes  re- 
quiring a  skill  for  which  the  earlier  classes  prepare. 
There  is,  however,  a  similarly  anomalous  condition  with 
reference  to  credit,  except  in  that  form  of  the  work 
which  deals  largely  with  mechanical  drawing  or  direct 
copying,  which  has  special  value  for  science  and  technical 
work  in  terms  of  college  entrance  credits.  The  purely 
aesthetic  function,  however,  is  held  in  similar  estimate 
to  that  of  music.  The  individual  product  in  design  and 
pictures  develops  an  ambition  for  individual  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil  that  the  collective  work  in  music  does 
not  foster.  Folk  and  aesthetic  dancing  connected  with 
physical  training  have  rich  aesthetic  possibilities  which 
are  seldom  utilized.  Only  a  few  high  schools  as  yet 
understand  or  concern  themselves  with  anything  beyond 
the  health  aspect  of  the  work. 

We  have,  then,  music,  art,  and  physical  training  as  the 
studies  that  have  aesthetic  training  as  a  definite  aim. 
This  does  not  mean  that  aesthetic  values  are  not  recog- 
nized in  literature,  language,  and  even  the  sciences,  but 
these  subjects  have  other  aims,  that  of  aesthetic  value 
being  incidental  and  depending  on  the  personality  of 
the  teacher. 


320  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  Spirit  of  Modern  Teaching  Wrong. — If  we  con- 
sider the  five  categories,  scientific,  literary,  aesthetic,  in- 
stitutional, and  religious  that  the  child  is  entitled  to,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  training  for  the  love  of  the  beautiful 
holds  a  very  large  place  in  an  ideal  plan  of  education. 
When  we  compare  this  with  the  paucity  in  time,  in  teach- 
ing force,  in  worth  given  to  the  subjects  by  credits  in 
units,  or  by  insistence  on  preparation  and  work  done,  the 
discrepancy  between  the  demand  of  the  theorist  and  the 
result  in  actual  practice  becomes  striking.  If,  further, 
we  consider  the  spirit  of  the  work  the  contrast  becomes 
even  stronger.  "  It  becomes  absolutely  impossible  for  us 
any  longer  to  identify  education  with  mere  acquisition 
of  learning;  and  we  begin  to  look  upon  it  as  really  the 
vestibule  of  the  highest  and  richest  type  of  living,  a 
gradual  adjustment  to  the  spiritual  possessions  of  the 
race."  l 

Are  the  languages,  the  sciences,  and  literature,  practi- 
cally all  that  is  studied  of  the  above  list,  taught  as  a 
"vestibule  of  the  highest  and  richest  type  of  living"? 
Or  are  they  taught  as  college  entrance  subjects,  subjects 
that  will  provide  discipline  and  can  be  measured? 

We  have  here  the  gist  of  the  whole  matter.  We  see  why 
the  aesthetic  element  is  so  crushed  out  of  the  ordinary 
subjects,  and  why,  in  those  in  which  it  is  the  main  factor, 
as  in  music  and  art,  the  aesthetic  stress  itself  is  slurred,  or 
else  omitted,  as  of  little  account  in  any  case. 

How  the  Teaching  of  Music  May  be  Improved. — A 
radical  improvement  can  be  made  in  the  teaching  of 
music  in  high  schools  when  a  change  can  be  brought 
about  in  the  fundamental  attitude  with  reference: 

i.  To  the  value  of  the  study  of  the  beautiful. 
1  Butler,  N.  M.  "  The  Meaning  of  Education,"  pp.  16  and  17. 


MUSIC  321 

2.  To  that  form  of  study  which,  instead  of  laying 
stress  on  formalism  and  mere  discipline,  puts  it  on  interest 
and  instinct  for  evaluating;  puts  emphasis  not  so  much 
on  the  causal  relations  of  what  is  studied  as  on  the  value 
to  the  individual. 

Prejudice  against  the  Study  of  Esthetics. — The  preju- 
dice of  the  educational  world  for  those  forms  of  study 
which  are  disciplinary  in  character  and  deal  with  the 
acquisition  of  facts,  such  as  the  languages,  the  sciences, 
and  mathematics,  is  but  a  manifestation  of  a  tendency 
of  our  whole  social  life.  We  look  on  serious  work  as 
dealing  only  with  those  subjects  that  are  quantitatively 
causal  and  can  be  measured  by  what  they  do.  We  con- 
sider it  worth  while  to  study  for  a  better  pursuit  of  "  Life 
and  Liberty,"  but  not  of  "Happiness."  We  do  not 
consider  those  subjects  whose  value  is  in  the  immediate 
pleasure  awakened  as  worthy  of  systematic  training.  So 
strong  is  this  prejudice  in  our  educational  organization 
that  even  the  teachers  of  art  and  music,  in  the  degree  to 
which  they  are  talented  and  serious,  attempt  also  in  their 
work  to  treat  their  subjects  as  disciplines  for  acquiring 
a  technic  rather  than  exercises  as  affording  an  opportu- 
nity for  that  intimacy  of  possession  which  is  the  mark  of 
aesthetic  attainment. 

There  is  an  evident  tendency  to  misjudge  such  work. 
The  thorough-going  musician  is  apt  to  consider  it  the 
most  important  factor  in  music  teaching;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  schoolman  who  views  music  for  its  social  and 
aesthetic  value  is  impatient  with  work  that  is  so  technical 
in  character,  constantly  preparing  for  the  enjoyment  of 
the  beautiful,  but  rarely  attaining  it.  It  is  because  of 
this  misjudgment  that  the  work  stands  in  such  an  anom- 
alous position  in  high  school  courses. 


322  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Standards  of  Musical  Preparation. — One  would  nat- 
rurally  think  that  such  peculiarly  technical  work  would 
require  preparation  in  order  to  allow  students  to  enter  ad- 
vanced classes,  and  yet,  the  country  over,  there  is  hardly 
a  school  that  would  debar  a  student  from  entering  a  class 
in  music  because  he  was  not  prepared  for  it;  if  classified 
by  other  subjects,  he  would  naturally  enter  it.  The  al- 
most universal  lack  of  definite  knowledge  of  music  after 
eight  years  of  work  in  the  lower  schools  is  a  constant 
surprise  to  those  who  have  investigated  the  subject;  and 
yet  this  is  not  at  all  to  be  wondered  at  when  we  recall  that 
the  high  school  has  no  standards  for  musical  acquisition. 
If  the  ability  to  sing  is  entirely  lacking,  at  least  the  student 
should  be  able  to  explain  the  signs  used.  Students  enter- 
ing without  preparation  should  be  required  to  make  up 
the  work.  The  subject  should  be  treated  as  any  other 
technical  subject  in  this  respect.  There  are  many  schools 
where  music  is  not  thoroughly  taught,  and  for  pupils 
from  these  schools  the  high  school  must  make  adjust- 
ments; but  where  music  is  adequately  taught,  at  the  end 
of  the  grammar  school  period,  pupils  should  be  able: 

I.  To  sing  musically  and  with  evident  intelligence; 
that  is, 

1.  With  artistic  method,  requiring  such  features  as: 

(a)  Agreeable  tone,     )  ,  .      , 

fL\  r*  u      •        r     implying  breath  control. 

(0)  Correct  phrasing,  j 

(c)  Feeling  for  the  spirit,  tempo,  and  character  of 
the  song,  implying  practical  knowledge  of  the  common 
marks  and  terms  by  which  these  are  suggested. 

2.  With   evidence   of  some   acquaintance  with   good 
music,  vocal  and  instrumental;  because  they  have  mem- 
orized a  large  number  of  song-gems  and  have  associated 
with  many  selections  the  story  of  their  origin. 


MUSIC  323 

II.  To  sing  at  sight  and  handle  the  rudiments  of  musi- 
cal structure;  that  is: 

1.  With  ability  to  read: 

(a)  A  part  in  a  three  or  four-part  tune,  such  as  one 
by  Dykes,  Barnby,  or  Sullivan. 

(&)  Eight-measure  melodies. 

(c)  All  time-signatures,  with  the  use  of  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  tones  to  the  beat,  unequally  divided  beats, 
and  syncopation;  and  key-signatures,  major  and  minor, 
with  either  the  F-clef  or  the  G-clef,  and  also  the  signs 
for  chromatic  tones. 

2.  With  ability  to  write  in  staff  notation  from  dictation 
a  simple  melody,  showing  the  power  to  analyze  what  is 
heard: 

(1)  As  to  the  union  or  division  of  beats, 

(2)  As  to  the  grouping  of  beats  into  measure-patterns, 
and, 

(3)  As  to  the  pitch-relationships  in  the  key,  major  or 
minor. 

A  full  discussion  of  these  standards  may  be  seen  in  the 
"Proceedings  of  the  Music  Teachers'  National  Associa- 
tion for  1908." 

Chorus  Work  and  Sight-Singing. — Two  important 
things  are  developed  by  such  work: 

(1)  Tone  thinking,  and 

(2)  A  knowledge  of  notation  which  gives  access  to  the 
literature  of  music. 

If  the  full  aesthetic  value  of  chorus  singing  is  to  be 
attained  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  music 
selected  should  be  the  gems  of  the  art;  and  these  should 
be  memorized  and  so  learned  that  they  can  be  enjoyed 
after  the  student  has  left  the  school.  Unfortunately,  the 
desire  to  perform  ambitious  works,  such  as  oratorio  cho- 


324  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ruses,  not  only  strains  the  voices  by  the  extremes  of  pitch 
and  power  that  such  works  generally  demand,  but  after 
the  student  has  left  the  school  he  is  able  to  reproduce  his 
pleasure  only  as  he  becomes  a  member  of  a  chorus  where 
such  works  are  given. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  more  attention  is  paid  to  unison 
songs,  where  associations  can  be  made  between  the  text 
and  the  melody,  the  student  will  have  within  his  own 
power  of  reproduction  beautiful  works,  thus  adding 
to  his  racial  inheritance  in  song  the  rich  association 
of  a  joyous  youth. 

Plan  for  Chorus  Work. — The  following  plan  is  sug- 
gested with  reference  to  chorus  work.  Let  there  be  one 
gathering  a  week,  covering  one  period,  at  which  choruses 
and  musical  works  prepared  in  the  classes  should  have 
either  a  final  presentation,  or  a  dress  rehearsal.  This 
period  should  be  considered  not  as  a  practice  period,  but 
as  one  of  the  social  functions  of  the  school,  occasionally 
including  speeches,  addresses,  and  performances  by  ar- 
tists and  visitors.  This  should  be  the  hour  for  especially 
invited  guests  and  friends  of  the  school.  Production  at 
this  time  should  furnish  the  much-needed  motives  for  the 
work  done  in  the  organizations  and  classes. 

Supporting  this  hour  should  be  a  full  period  of  practice 
each  week,  in  sections  small  enough  to  have  the  individual 
work  followed  up.  There  should  be  a  second  hour  for 
the  first  and  second-year  high  school  students,  occupied 
primarily  with  practice  in  sight-singing  and  ear-training, 
going  over  the  ground  covered  by  the  grammar  grades 
and  giving  an  opportunity  for  those  who  have  had  no 
music  to  get  sufficient  facility  in  the  rudiments  to  take 
part  intelligently  in  the  choruses. 

Both  the  practice  period  supplementing  the  general 


MUSIC  325 

musical  gathering  and  the  extra  hour  of  drill  in  sight- 
reading,  required  of  the  first  and  second  year,  should  be 
conducted  as  we  conduct  any  other  subject,  and  receive 
similar  credit.  While  there  are  some  who  cannot  carry 
a  tune,  so  there  are  some  color-blind  people.  For  such 
it  may  be  necessary  to  make  special  adjustments,  but  in 
most  cases  the  value  of  the  work  is  sufficient  to  allow  such 
few  cases  to  go  on  with  the  class.  These  can  certainly 
learn  the  few  facts  and  principles  which  it  is  necessary  to 
master  in  connection  with  sight-singing.  The  intellectual 
part  even  a  stone-deaf  person  could  learn  in  a  few  hours 
of  serious  study. 

The  justification  for  requiring  every  one  to  undertake 
the  sight-singing  discipline  lies  in  the  fact  that  music  is 
one  of  the  most  social  of  all  arts.  Through  the  voice 
every  one  can  participate  in  an  artistic  production  to  an 
extent  impossible  in  any  other  art.  Music,  more  than 
any  other  form  of  aesthetics,  is  the  art  of  our  time.  Also, 
it  is  the  only  art  whose  forms  have  no  objective  existence. 
The  slight  discipline  in  tone  discrimination  that  sight- 
singing  demands,  as  has  already  been  insisted  upon, 
finds  rich  compensation  in  the  increased  enjoyment  made 
possible,  and  justifies  the  hours  spent,  the  credits  given, 
and  the  standards  required,  all  of  which  is  necessary  to 
put  the  study  on  a  serious  educational  basis. 

Appreciation  Courses. — While  sight-singing  is  of  the 
utmost  value  in  developing  the  power  of  tonal  thought 
and  gives  acquaintance  with  songs,  its  outlook  upon 
musical  art  is  comparatively  narrow.  Few  of  the  many 
works  even  of  vocal  art  can  be  studied  in  the  intensive 
way  that  the  reproduction  of  them  in  chorus  would  de- 
mand. The  broad  field  of  instrumental  music,  besides 
large  portions  of  the  vocal  art,  never  come  within  the 


326  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

horizon  of  the  pupil,  hence  a  second  class  of  work  is  rec- 
ommended giving  a  less  intensive,  but  much  broader, 
view  of  music.  Such  courses  are  generally  called  appre- 
ciation courses,  sometimes  observation  courses.  It  might 
be  simpler  and  nearer  the  truth  to  call  them  acquaintance 
courses,  the  main  object  being  to  bring  the  students  in 
touch  with  the  master  compositions  of  the  art.  Such 
work  would  have  been  almost  impossible  ten  years  ago 
unless  the  teacher  were  a  brilliant  player  and  singer,  but 
with  the  wonderful  advance  in  recent  years  in  the  means 
of  reproducing  music  a  whole  new  field  of  education  has 
been  opened  to  the  music  teacher.  It  would  be  absurd 
to  say  that  because  the  pupil  was  not  producing  the  music 
himself  he  was  getting  little  value  from  listening  to  it. 
Our  whole  enjoyment  of  literature  as  an  art  (the  art  of 
individual  reading  having  little  to  do  with  it)  is  similar 
to  the  enjoyment  of  music  by  means  of  something  that 
produces  it  for  us.  Shakespeare,  for  example,  does  not 
have  to  be  acted  to  be  enjoyed. 

No  adequate  standards  of  this  kind  of  work  have  been 
established  as  yet.  Some  dwell  on  the  historic  and  hu- 
man connections  of  what  is  being  heard,  others  go  into 
the  analysis  of  the  form,  but  perhaps  the  most  valuable 
for  the  general  public  and  at  the  same  time  the  simplest 
to  manage  so  that  a  genuine  aesthetic  value  shall  result,  is 
to  have  the  students  hear  the  works  a  sufficient  number 
of  times  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  whistle  or  hum  the 
important  themes. 

Importance  of  Knowing  Musical  "Motives." — As  music 
is  an  organic  creation,  generally  based  upon  a  few  striking 
motives,  to  learn  these  motives  so  thoroughly  that  they 
can  be  readily  recognized  and  associated  with  the  works 
to  which  they  belong,  would  give  the  result  to  the  student 


MUSIC  327 

in  a  nutshell,  and  would  guarantee  the  most  intelligent 
enjoyment  when  these  works  were  heard  from  great  or- 
chestras and  choruses.  Not  that  some  attention,  both 
as  to  human  interest,  form,  and  structure,  should  not 
accompany  such  work,  but  the  pupil  should  be  able,  when 
asked  if  he  knows  the  G-minor  Fugue  of  Bach,  to  have 
naturally  springing  into  his  mind  the  rollicking  theme, 
rather  than  the  fact  that  the  fugue  has  subject  and 
counter-subject,  stretto  and  pedal  point. 

Plan  for  Appreciation  Courses. — Such  work  demands 
a  room  with  instruments  for  reproducing  music  both  in- 
strumental and  vocal,  and  a  library  of  music,  rolls,  and 
discs;  and  a  thorough  organization  of  the  students  so 
that  the  room  can  be  continuously  used  by  small  groups. 
The  result  of  the  time  thus  spent  will  enable  one  to 
whistle,  to  sing,  and  to  recognize  the  principal  themes 
of  compositions.  This  will  mean  one  hour  a  week  of 
work  tested  and  enriched  by  the  teacher,  and  one  hour  of 
individual  preparation  by  the  pupil.  In  this  work  the 
teaching  staff  of  the  school  can  be  largely  utilized.  In- 
deed, it  will  give  them  a  most  enjoyable  opportunity  of 
becoming  acquainted  both  with  good  music  and  with  their 
own  pupils,  through  the  joint  effort  to  appreciate  discrimi- 
natingly the  beauties  of  masterpieces.  The  work  when 
so  accomplished  should  be  credited  as  part  of  required 
aesthetic  work  for  graduation.  Similar  work  in  any  other 
art  may  be  substituted  where  talent  and  taste  indicate  the 
wisdom  of  such  elective  principle. 

Mr.  Edward  B.  Birge,  in  charge  of  the  music  in  the 
Indianapolis  schools,  is  introducing  mechanical  players 
into  the  grammar  grades,  and  finds  that  they  prove  of 
value  in  stimulating  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  music. 
Lying  between  the  college  and  the  grammar  schools  is  the 


328  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

high  school,  where  the  pupils  are  at  the  age  for  the  most 
effective  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic  nature. 

The  demand  for  one  or  two  extra  hours  upon  the  al- 
ready overcrowded  curriculum  is  justified  by  the  fact 
that  these  hours  are  almost  the  only  ones  which  are  pri- 
marily and  specifically  concerned  with  introducing  the 
student  to  the  aesthetic  inheritance  of  the  race — surely  one 
of  the  five  great  aims  of  education. 

Credits. — Credit  for  this  work  in  melody  memorizing, 
as  well  as  for  the  course  just  preceding,  in  sight-singing,  is 
justified  by  the  fact  that  both  of  these  activities  can  be  ac- 
curately measured  and  the  student's  application  noted. 
With  some  students  we  do  the  work  with  greater  ease  than 
with  others,  it  is  perfectly  true,  but  this  is  so  in  other  sub- 
jects. It  may  be  granted  that  musical  aptitude  aids  a  stu- 
dent more  than  aptitude  in  other  subjects,  so  that  some 
judgment  would  have  to  be  used  in  marking  for  diligence 
on  the  basis  of  accomplishment;  but,  again,  is  not  this  true 
also  of  other  subjects?  Music  would  simply  require  a 
little  more  care  in  this  respect.  Because  both  of  these 
forms  of  study  are  thus  measurable,  they  are  not  in  them- 
selves aesthetic,  and  they  should  not  be  confused,  as  is  so 
often  done  when  the  objection  is  made  to  music  study, 
that  it  is  not  disciplinary  and,  therefore,  not  a  credit  sub- 
ject. The  objectors  are  really  thinking  of  purely  aesthetic 
work,  and  they  are  right  in  this  contention.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  music  teacher  declares  that  his  work  is 
as  disciplinary  as  mathematics,  he  is  also  right,  for  he  is 
talking  about  another  aspect  of  the  subject. 

While  aesthetics  is  as  difficult  to  teach  directly  as  mor- 
als, both  have  to  deal  with  our  valuation  of  things.  The 
courses  indicated  above  can  be  made  to  minister  to  aes- 
thetic training  if  seriously  treated. 


MUSIC  329 

Such  comprehensive  work  in  music  is  justified  as  well 
by  college  entrance  requirements.  A  recent  list  of  the 
colleges  of  New  England,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey, 
gives  the  following  institutions  as  granting  entrance 
credit  for  music:  Amherst  College,  Barnard  College, 
Boston  University,  Columbia  University,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Mt.  Holyoke,  Radcliffe,  Smith,  and  Tufts  Col- 
leges. Such  a  representative  number  of  eastern  insti- 
tutions granting  credit  in  music  is  significant.  Of  these 
colleges,  four  grant  entrance  credit  for  musical  appreci- 
ation; Tufts,  for  example,  not  only  gives  lecture  and 
recitation  courses,  but  also  has  a  well-equipped  room 
with  library  and  rolls,  where  the  student,  though  not  a 
performer,  may  familiarize  himself  with  musical  literature 
and  thought. 

Courses  in  Harmony  and  Composition. — A  third  variety 
of  musical  work,  which  is  required  for  college  entrance 
by  some  of  the  more  advanced  institutions,  can  be  given, 
consisting  of  elective  courses  in  harmony,  composition, 
form,  and  history — such  courses  being  intended  only  for 
talented  students  doing  intensive  work.  These  offer  little 
difficulty  in  their  management  or  in  assignable  credit  units. 

Musical  Clubs. — A  fourth  variety  of  musical  work,  more 
important  to  the  life  of  the  school,  consists  in  organiza- 
tions such  as  glee  and  instrumental  clubs.  Such  work 
naturally  attracts  the  more  talented  students,  and,  by 
giving  them  a  power  of  expressing  themselves,  helps  them 
to  realize  their  own  talents.  In  this  way  the  school  dis- 
covers and  develops  its  musical  leaders.  At  the  same 
time  organizations  are  of  the  utmost  value  in  the  concert 
and  other  social  functions  of  the  school,  widening  the 
possible  range  of  music  learned.  While  the  exigency  of 
the  programme  generally  requires  that  such  work  be  done 


330  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

outside  of  school  hours,  the  serious  study  put  into  it 
should  be  dignified  by  some  form  of  credit  compensation 
demanding  definite  standards  of  application  and  at- 
tendance. 

Private  Study  Outside  of  School. — Finally,  there  is  the 
fifth  variety  of  musical  activity  which  the  school  should 
recognize  and  utilize.  This  is  the  private  work  done 
outside.  No  small  proportion  of  the  pupils  who  enter 
the  high  school  have  spent  a  considerable  time  in  system- 
atic piano  study.  This  work  has  not  only  been  seri- 
ously done,  but  at  great  expense  of  both  time  and  money; 
and  yet  in  many  cases  this  is  thrown  away  because  the 
work  cannot  be  carried  on  while  the  pupil  is  doing  the 
required  school  work  necessary  to  keep  up  his  class 
standing.  A  break  of  four  years  in  such  technical  prac- 
tice is  sufficient  to  prevent  most  students  from  doing  any 
further  systematic  playing.  All  that  is  needed  is  for  the 
high  school  to  recognize  at  least  six  hours'  practice,  with 
two  lessons  a  week  as  equivalent  to  two  hours'  prepared 
work  in  any  of  the  required  subjects,  such  recognition 
being  based  on  the  talent  and  seriousness  with  which  the 
work  is  being  done.  While  the  direct  control  of  such 
work  by  the  high  school  presents  serious  difficulties,  the 
talent  and  accomplishment  of  students  wishing  such  rec- 
ognition would  be  evident  enough  for  school  authori- 
ties to  grant  the  credit  if  the  principle  were  recognized. 
A  serious  injustice  is  done  the  pupil,  and  a  stupid  lack  in 
the  recognition  of  educational  values  is  indicated  by  the 
present  educational  policy  in  secondary  education. 

Temperament  and  Training  of  the  Teacher. — The  tem- 
perament and  training  of  the  teacher  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  He  must  not  only  have  musical  ability 
above  the  average,  but  he  must  also  have  a  genuine  love 


MUSIC  331 

for  the  beautiful,  which  does  not  always  follow.  He 
must  have  the  power  of  tone  discrimination,  technical 
ability,  and  a  broad  educational  training  and  human 
sympathy  capable  of  relating  the  work  to  daily,  practi- 
cal experience.  The  musician  often  fails  in  this  because 
his  world  is  such  an  isolated  world  of  tone.  While  the 
college  training  may  hinder  a  musician's  technical  abil- 
ity, it  may  add  an  element  of  culture  and  human  sympa- 
thy, making  it  more  worth  while  for  him  if  he  is  to  be- 
come a  high  school  teacher  of  music. 

The  teacher's  ability  to  communicate  his  love  and 
enthusiasm  for  the  beautiful  is  the  point  upon  which 
depends  the  aesthetic  value  of  all  that  is  done.  If  these 
qualities  are  not  present,  every  form  of  work  tends  to  be- 
come technical  and  formal,  while  if  they  are  present  the 
simplest  scale  may  be  made  beautiful  and  expressive. 
It  is  the  need  of  the  times  to  find  men  who  shall  lead 
in  pioneer  work  requiring  such  nice  adjustment  of  per- 
sonal qualification  and  technical  training,  capable  of 
guiding  our  youth  into  the  spiritual  inheritance  of  the 
rac«. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING,  WITH  A 
SUGGESTED  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

W.  B.  ARBAUGH,  A.M. 

SUPERINTENDENT   Of   SCHOOLS,    YPSILANTI,    MICHIGAN 

Need  of  Moral  Culture  in  the  Schools. — There  is  a 
steadily  growing  conviction  that  a  larger  element  of 
moral  culture  should  be  combined  with  the  intellectual 
training  of  the  school.  In  recent  years  no  other  subject, 
save  that  of  vocational  training,  has  had  more  serious 
consideration  in  educational  circles  than  the  need  of  in- 
creased school  efficiency  in  the  development  of  character. 
A  deepening  appreciation  of  the  distinctively  purposive 
character  of  the  school  explains,  in  part,  this  conscious- 
ness of  its  moral  responsibility.  Furthermore,  the  school 
has  not  remained  uninfluenced  by  the  marvellous  moral 
awakening  of  recent  years,  the  distinctive  note  of  which 
is  its  demand  for  a  return  to  the  fundamental  virtues  in 
all  the  relationships  of  life. 

Importance  of  Moral  Training  in  Modern  Life. — In  the 
modern  industrial  and  social  order  new  and  strange  situ- 
ations, calling  for  fine  discrimination  and  quick  decision, 
crowd  upon  the  individual  at  every  turn.  Old  and  once 
familiar  principles  are  with  difficulty  recognized  in  the 
complexity  of  their  new  setting.  The  spectacle  of  moral 
breakdown  under  present-day  stress  and  strain  has 

332 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          333 

caused  thinkers  everywhere  to  analyze  the  situation  care- 
fully with  a  view  to  ascertaining  in  just  what  way  a 
system  of  ideals  and  values  may  be  made  effective  in 
modern  life.  In  view  of  the  essentially  practical  trend 
of  education  at  the  present  time,  there  is  grave  danger 
of  over-stressing  the  idea  of  productive  efficiency  in  an 
industrial  order,  unless,  at  the  same  time,  character  be 
strengthened  and  fortified  through  a  living  knowledge 
of  fundamental  moral  and  ethical  principles.  Indeed, 
it  is  always  to  be  kept  in  mind  that,  while  the  truly 
efficient  man  will  also  be  moral,  there  is  a  kind  of  effi- 
ciency which  lacks  the  essentials  of  morality. 

Moral  Element  in  Education  Needs  Emphasizing. — 
For  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  intellectual  element  in 
courses  of  study,  while  not  necessarily  overemphasized, 
has  been  greatly  stressed.  During  this  same  period 
there  has  been  no  corresponding  emphasis  upon  either 
the  moral  purpose  of  the  school  or  the  ethical  content 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum.  There  is  -a 
belief,  often  openly  and  confidently  expressed,  that  the 
learner  will,  unaided,  extract  from  this  subject-matter 
whatever  of  spiritual  truth  and  moral  worth  it  may  have 
for  him.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  this  is  the  attitude 
of  those  who  are  opposed  to  the  "pointing  of  morals." 
Conviction,  strength  of  character,  and  rare  good  judg- 
ment are  required  in  the  teacher  who,  when  occasion 
offers,  would  speak  out  before  young  people  in  no  un- 
certain terms  upon  the  great  questions  and  vital  issues 
of  life.  The  teacher  who  can  thus  speak  is  a  power  in 
moulding  positive  traits  of  character  in  the  lives  of  his 
students.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  effort  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  "preaching,"  the  teacher  may  cause  the 
moral  significance  of  what  he  is  presenting  in  a  lesson 


334  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  be  underestimated  or  overlooked  by  the  student,  who 
inevitably  assumes  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  or  the  text- 
book. 

Some  Aspects  of  the  General  Problem. — While  this 
chapter  is  meant  to  be  constructive  rather  than  critical, 
such  aspects  of  the  general  problem  as  are  important  in 
their  bearing  upon  later  discussion  must  be  mentioned. 
For  this  reason  it  is  pertinent  to  note  the  decline  of  certain 
influences  which  in  the  past  contributed  to  the  inculcation 
of  fundamental  qualities  of  character. 

First,  is  the  home.  In  the  rush  and  hurry  of  modern 
life,  many  of  the  simple,  essential  virtues  once  fostered  by 
the  life  in  the  best  homes  are  in  danger  of  being  lost.  One 
does  not  need  to  describe  nor  even  to  enumerate  the  con- 
ditions that  interfere  with  what  is  called  "home  training." 
The  difficulty  which  well-meaning  parents  have  in  de- 
vising tasks  to  fix  a  sense  of  responsibility  in  children, 
and  the  interests,  attractions,  and  activities  outside  the 
home,  which  make  their  appeal  to  parents  as  well  as  to 
children,  suggest  phases  of  the  situation  both  disturbing 
and  perplexing.  Nor  are  all  these  things  compensated 
for  by  the  broader  ethical  ideal  and  active  altruism  which 
result  from  the  world-unifying  influences  of  modern  in- 
ventions and  industry. 

Again,  the  attitude  not  only  of  the  public,  but  often  of 
the  teacher  and  the  school,  toward  the  school  use  of  the 
Bible  and  simple  Bible  truths,  marks  a  decline  in  the 
wholesome  attitude  of  an  earlier  day.1  It  may  be  that 
the  use  of  the  Bible  in  our  democratic  public  school  is 

1  The  recent  introduction  of  the  Old  Testament  narrative  in  the  Col- 
lege Entrance  Requirements  in  English  is  not  to  be  understood  as  mark- 
ing a  return  to  Bible  study  in  the  school.  The  Bible  text  is  to  be  read 
as  literature,  and  any  attempt  to  enlarge  upon  or  explain  its  religious 
teachings  would,  in  most  places,  be  barred. 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          335 

not  practicable.  This  would  seem  to  be  so  unless  con- 
stitutional restraint  be  removed.  However,  because  the 
teaching  of  religion,  in  the  sense  of  instruction  in  dogma, 
is  forbidden,  all  reference  to  a  higher  life  and  such  subjects 
as  God  and  immortality  is  too  often  omitted  by  teachers 
in  the  course  of  other  instruction.  As  to  the  effect  of 
such  an  attitude,  one  writer1  says: 

"  Silence  regarding  an  issue  is,  in  fact,  often  the  surest 
way  of  throwing  influence  in  favor  of  a  negative  solution 
of  it.  ...  Religion  or  irreligion  is  present  in  the  schools 
just  as  surely  as  teachers  are  present.  ...  In  the  regu- 
lation of  conduct;  in  the  study  of  literature,  biography, 
history,  and  nature;  by  incidental  reference  here  and 
there,  especially  as  all  these  are  reinforced  by  the  teacher's 
own  tone  and  manner  of  life,  it  is  easy  to  make  the  child 
realize  that  the  school  respects  that  which  his  parents 
and  his  church  hold  most  dear.  Without  at  least  thus 
much  religion  in  the  school,  we  cultivate  a  divided  self 
in -the  pupil.  He  lives  in  several  different  worlds,  be- 
tween which  he  experiences  no  unity.  .  .  .The  primary 
necessity,  then,  is  that  the  school  should  take  religion  for 
granted." 

One  cannot  enter  here  into  a  full  discussion  of  the 
subject  of  religious  education  and  training.  However, 
the  vital  relationship  not  only  between  religion  and 
morality,  but  between  these  and  other  factors  in  educa- 
tion, cannot  be  ignored.  Nothing  could  be  more  impor- 
tant in  educational  practice  than  the  recognition  of  the 
essential  unity  which  these  factors  constitute  and  which 
makes  the  terms,  "religious,"  "moral,"  "vocational," 
etc.,  inapplicable  and  needless.  The  fallacy  underlying 
a  dissociation  in  theory  and  the  necessity  following  their 

1  Coe,  G.  A.,  "Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,"  pp.  352^. 


336  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

separation  in  practice  have  recently  been  stated  as  fol- 
lows: 

"In  the  English-speaking  world,  secular  education 
became  popular  through  a  misunderstanding.  Most  of 
those  who  advocated  it  imagined  education  to  be  a 
faggot  of  different '  subjects,'  out  of  which  you  could  pull 
the  stick  called  'religion'  without  any  serious  loss  of 
kindling  for  the  fire.  ...  If  you  leave  religion  out  of  the 
work  of  a  school,  you  have  to  find  some  substitute  for  it. 
A  school  is  not  a  purely  intellectual  workshop.  It  is  a 
community  in  which  the  emotions  are  stirred,  the  imagi- 
nation quickened,  ideals  of  life  imparted.  .  .  .  Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  a  school  must  address  itself  to  the 
task  of  influencing  conduct  and  shaping  character.  In 
order  to  do  this  it  must  have  a  philosophy,  implicit  in 
its  influence,  explicit  in  its  course  of  instruction."  1 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  the  problem  could  be 
stated  only  in  its  main  outlines.  In  nothing  that  has  been 
said,  however,  is  it  implied  that  the  whole  task  of  char- 
acter formation  is  to  be  assumed  by  the  school.  Indeed, 
the  magnitude  of  the  intellectual  task  imposed  upon  the 
school  makes  this  impossible.  Yet  with  all  that  may 
be  accomplished  through  other  agencies,  there  remains 
much  which  can  best  be  achieved  through  this  means. 
What  is  needed  is  a  more  profound  appreciation  of 
the  moral  duty  of  the  school,  and  a  full  recognition 
of  its  character  as  a  socializing  agency.  Through  the 
school  mainly  can  the  individual  be  expected  to  arrive 
at  anything  like  an  adequate  understanding  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  larger  relations  of  mature  life.  The  im- 
portance of  this  can  hardly  be  overestimated,  for  "  social 

1  Sadler,  M.  E.,  "High  Church  Men  and  the  Crisis  in  English  Educa- 
tion," Contemporary  Review,  98  :  257. 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          337 

knowledge  is  the  basis  of  morality."  "We  live  in  a 
system,  and  to  achieve  right  ends,  or  any  rational  ends 
whatever,  we  must  learn  to  understand  that  system."  * 

Methods  of  Instruction. — The  general  agreement  upon 
the  necessity  of  increased  attention  to  the  moral  element 
in  education  has  already  been  noted.  Most  of  the  dis- 
cussion of  recent  years  has  centred  about  the  question  of 
method.  The  terms,  direct  and  indirect,  as  applied  to 
instruction  in  morals  and  ethics  need  little  explanation. 
The  former  implies  the  use  of  precept,  the  study  of  the 
principles  of  right  action,  and  the  examination  of  motives 
and  ideals  in  conduct.  The  latter,  sometimes  called  the 
incidental  method,  has  reference  to  the  use  of  the  organi- 
zation and  the  activities  of  the  school,  and  of  the  moral 
and  ethical  implications  of  the  regular  school  subjects. 
Specifically,  the  former  aims  at  supplying  moral  concep- 
tions and  insight;  the  latter  adds  to  incidental  instruction 
training,  in  the  sense  of  formation  of  right  habits. 

To  the  method  of  direct  instruction  many  objections 
are  offered.  It  has  been  suggested,  for  example,  that 
morality  is  not  a  matter  of  knowledge,  but  rather  of 
habits  formed  during  growth  and  adjustment  "in  some 
sort  of  moral  world."  2  Again,  it  is  argued,  weakness  of 
will,  which  no  amount  of  instruction  in  ideals  of  conduct 
can  strengthen,  is  at  the  bottom  of  much  wrong-doing. 
There  is  further  objection  on  the  ground  that  such  in- 
struction easily  degenerates  into  "moralizing,"  which 
either  passes  over  the  head  of  the  pupil  or  palls  upon  him, 
leaving  no  results  in  conduct.  Still  other  objections  are 
based  on  the  ground  of  the  danger  of  morbidness  and 

1  Cooley,  C.  H.,  "Social  Organization,"  p.  21.  See,  also,  Chancellor, 
W.  E.,  "Motives,  Ideals,  and  Values  in  Education,"  pp.  27  ff. 

*  Palmer,  G.  H.,  "  Ethical  and  Moral  Instruction  in  Schools,"  p.  9. 


338  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

moral  precocity,  which  might  result  from  too  early  ex- 
amination and  criticism,  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  of  his 
own  conduct  and  that  of  others. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  favor  making  use  of 
direct  instruction,  while  not  opposing  the  use  of  incidental 
means,  regard  the  latter  as  inadequate  and,  at  best,  as  too 
likely  to  be  neglected  in  the  regular  work  of  the  school. 
It  is  urged  that  present-day  moral  laxity  is  due  in  part  to 
the  school's  neglect  of  instruction  in  morals,  and  that  if 
right  ideals  of  personal  conduct  are  to  have  influence  in 
maturity  there  must  be  conscious  and  unremitting  effort 
to  establish  these  early  in  life.  A  further  argument  in 
favor  of  direct  instruction  is  adduced  from  the  thought- 
lessness or  ignorance  to  which  much  wrong  conduct  is 
due.  A  cure  for  this,  it  is  believed,  will  be  found  in  the 
quickening,  through  instruction,  of  moral  insight  or  per- 
ception.1 

In  this  question  of  method  there  is  much  confusion  in 
the  use  of  terms.  Most  of  those  who  oppose  direct 
instruction  have  in  mind  such  extreme  formalism  as 
characterizes  the  classic  illustration  from  the  Emile.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  no  one  could  be  found  so  devoid 
of  reason  and  judgment  as  to  practice  or  defend  such 
procedure.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  those  who 
believe  in  rational,  systematic  instruction  in  questions 
of  social  relationships  is  increasing.  Fortunately,  while 
the  distinction  between  the  two  methods  may  be  clearly 
drawn  in  theory,  practice  need  not  be  confined  to  either 
method  exclusively.  The  true  teacher  will  have  such  a 

1  An  excellent  brief  statement  of  the  pros  and  cons  of  direct  moral 
instruction  is  to  be  found  in  "Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  Schools: 
Report  of  an  International  Inquiry,"  edited  by  M.  E.  Sadler,  vol.  I, 
chaps.  II-VI.  Chap.  II  presents  in  concise  form,  also,  some  of  the 
scientific  aspects  of  the  whole  subject. 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          339 

conception  of  his  work  as  will  enable  him  to  use  wisely 
whichever  one  occasions  demand.  "  Every  man  in  every 
work  needs  some  such  controlling  idea  under  which  all 
details  of  method  can  be  harmonized.  It  keeps  the  large- 
ness of  a  man's  labor.  It  saves  him  from  the  danger 
of  first  thinking  there  is  only  one  way  to  do  his  work, 
and  then  narrowing  his  work  to  the  possibilities  of  that 
single  method."  1 

Passing  from  general  aspects  of  the  subject  in  its  re- 
lation to  schools  of  any  grade,  we  may  now  deal  directly 
with  the  high  school,  and  especially  with  methods  of 
procedure  there.  Much  importance  has  always  been 
attached  to  the  moralizing  effect  of  the  organization  and 
work,  and  the  life  and  interests  of  the  school,  and  to  the 
personality  of  teachers.  It  is  doubtful,  indeed,  whether 
there  has  been  full  recognition  of  the  moral  value  of  these 
agencies.  In  actual  practice  there  is  too  little  conscious 
effort  to  utilize  them  to  the  best  advantage.  The  test 
of  the  teacher's  fitness  has  in  the  past  been  measured  too 
largely  by  his  scholastic  attainments  or  his  ability  to  pre- 
pare students  to  pass  examinations.  Furthermore,  the 
life  and  interests  of  the  modern  high  school  are  in  them- 
selves complex,  and  easily  become  demoralizing  influ- 
ences if  left  to  themselves,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case 
under  present  conditions.2  It  is  clear  that  there  should 
be  a  better  utilization  of  incidental  means  for  training 

1  Phillips  Brooks,  "Essays  and  Addresses,"  p.  41. 

*  As  an  example,  note  the  practice,  sometimes  resorted  to  by  salesmen, 
of  gratuitously  supplying  pins  or  invitations  for  the  personal  use  of  those 
who  have  in  charge  the  purchase  of  these  articles.  This  is  the  beginning 
of  "graft "  or  "rake-off."  The  insidious  manner  in  which  such  tempta- 
tions come  makes  them  all  the  more  dangerous,  while  the  practice  itself 
is  opposed  to  the  idea  of  service,  which  should  permeate  all  life  as  well 
as  the  instruction  of  the  school.  Those  familiar  with  social  activities 
and  athletics  in  the  high  school  know  of  many  such  antimoral  practices. 


340  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  character.  Through  the  activities  of  a  well-regulated 
school,  habits  of  response  to  moral  situations,  a  sense 
of  responsibility,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  meaning 
of  social  interdependence  should  be  acquired  naturally. 
Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  put  upon  the  school  as  a 
social  institution  in  which  preparation  for  life  is  taking 
place  through  all  of  its  actual,  concrete  relations  and 
activities.1 

In  this  brief  consideration  of  incidental  means  the 
term,  training,  was  purposely  used  to  refer  to  habits  of  re- 
sponse and  conduct,  which  these  means  cultivate.  There 
is,  however,  a  conviction,  well-founded,  that  indirect  train- 
ing is  inadequate,  that  the  results  are  unsatisfactory. 
This  conviction  is  expressing  itself  in  a  demand  that  the 
high  school  shall  give  also  specific  instruction  in  moral 
matters.  This  need  not  be  rigidly  interpreted  as  instruc- 
tion in  ethics,  although  this,  as  will  appear  later,  may  well 
have  a  place  in  adolescent  education.  Much  material 
already  in  the  curriculum  is  rich  in  ideas  which  have  great 
moral  value  for  instruction  in  social  and  civic  questions. 
That  this  material  should  be  so  used,  it  is  necessary 
merely  to  call  attention  to  the  need  to-day  of  such  intel- 
ligence and  conscience  in  civic  matters  as  will  lead  the 
individual  to  think  as  highly  of  public  duty  as  of  private 
right.  Again,  the  innate  ambition  of  youth  should  be 
utilized  in  establishing  standards  by  which  to  measure 
success,  in  giving  counsel  and  guidance  in  the  choice  of 
life  vocations,  and  in  instilling  ideas  of  social  obligation. 

There  is  a  further  reason  for  specific  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  right  conduct.  Training,  which  is  the  result 
of  participation  in  the  life,  not  only  of  the  school,  but 

1  Cf.  Dewey,  "  Moral  Principles  in  Education,"  pp.  5  ff.  Also  Hen- 
derson, "A  Text-Book  in  the  Principles  of  Education,"  pp.  412-414. 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          341 

of  the  larger  life  outside  the  school,  manifests  itself  in 
habits  and  characteristic  attitudes.  These,  however,  do 
not  function  unless  a  stimulus  is  present,  and,  in  conditions 
that  are  constantly  changing,  the  original  stimulus  may 
be  lost.  Hence,  "morality  is  not  all  habit  and  emotion. 
Conscientious  conduct  implies  not  only  doing  the  right 
thing  when  we  know  it,  but  finding  out  the  right  thing  to 
do.  Conduct  that  is  mere  habit  is  not  real  moral  con- 
duct; 'Good  habits'  need  constant  revision  for  growing 
persons  and  changing  society."1 

Knowledge,  also,  would  thus  appear  to  be  a  requisite 
for  genuine  moral  conduct.  Even  this  without  the  ele- 
ment of  will  is  not  a  guarantee  of  right  action.2  But, 
assuming  the  importance  of  will,  it  must  be  said  that 
knowledge  has  a  large  place.  So,  in  addition  to  instruc- 
tion in  morals  more  or  less  indirectly  through  other  sub- 
jects, instruction  in  elementary  ethics  as  the  science  of 
right  action  should  be  undertaken  by  the  high  school. 
The  complexity  of  modern  life  often  makes  not  only 
apprehension  of  moral  truth  but  discernment  of  moral 
obliquity  difficult.  Actual  confusion  and  perplexity  is 
thus  responsible  for  much  wrong-doing.  Most  of  such 
instruction  should,  doubtless,  be  deferred  to  the  last  high 
school  year,  although  teachers  should  never  hesitate  to 
state  clearly  the  conditions  of  ethical  situations  as  they 
arise.  Before  students  leave  the  high  school,  they  have 
reached  the  period  of  later  adolescence,  when  instinct 
and  habit  have  risen  to  the  higher  level  of  reflective  life. 
At  this  time  examination  of  some  of  the  standards  and 
ideals  which  society  has  established  for  its  members  may 

1  Tufts,  J.  H.,  "Is  There  a  Place  for  Moral  Instruction?",  editorial  in 
The  School  Review,  16  :  476. 
2 Cf.  Home,  H.  H.,  "Idealism  in  Education,"  p.  137. 


342  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

well  be  made.  Such  specific  instruction  should  be  skil- 
xully  and  tactfully  given.  There  should  be  regular 
weekly  recitations  throughout  the  year,  or  daily  recitations 
for  a  term,  preferably  toward  the  end  of  the  year.  This 
would  seem  to  be  sufficient  time  for  the  presentation  of 
such  material  as  is  available.  Because  there  are  yet  no 
text-books  well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  the  subject  will 
have  to  be  presented  orally  by  the  teacher.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  books  of  merit  which  may  be  used  as 
parallel  reading.1  A  compilation  of  ethical  readings 
of  acknowledged  merit  compiled  from  modern  sources 
would  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  further  supplementing 
instruction.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  compilation,  per- 
sonal guidance  in  reading  selected  portions  from  ethical 
literature  will  be  found  practicable.  Reports  by  students 
upon  assigned  topics  can  be  discussed,  the  discussion 
being  wisely  directed  by  the  teacher  so  that  definite  con- 
clusions and  principles  may  be  reached.  Further  diffi- 
culty will  be  met  in  finding,  in  the  regular  corps,  a  teacher 
fitted  in  temperament,  training,  and  experience  to  give 
such  instruction.  Here  the  necessity  of  specific  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  for  this  work  is  evident.  But  limita- 
tions should  not  stand  in  the  way  of  our  doing  whatever 
may  be  practicable.  It  has  been  shown  that  moral  en- 
lightenment presents  a  legitimate  field  for  high  school  in- 
struction. There  should  be  an  end  of  abstract  discus- 
sion as  to  its  feasibility.  The  first  steps  may  be  halting; 
a  body  of  principles  will  have  to  be  worked  out,  and  this 
can  be  done  only  through  experimentation  and  practice. 
Programme  of  Study. — A  proposal  for  moral  and  ethi- 
cal instruction  is  given  below  as  a  tentative  programme 

1  Probably  the  best  attempt  in  the  direction  of  a  text-book  is  J.  N. 
Larned's  "A  Primer  of  Right  and  Wrong." 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          343 

of  study.  Related  topics,  not^  previously  mentioned  in 
the  discussion,  are  included.  Further  topics  and  sugges- 
tions will  be  found  in  several  of  the  titles  mentioned  in 
the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  book.  Much  of  the 
work  suggested  may  be  carried  on  incidentally  through 
such  subjects  as  history  and  English  composition.  A  full 
recitation  period  once  or  twice  a  week  may  be  allotted  to 
elementary  civics,  elementary  ethics,  and  related  topics. 

FIRST   YEAR. — A.    Service.    (Instruction  through  assigned  read- 
ings, discussion,  and  composition.) 

1.  Public  Service. 

a.  The  fight  against  disease. 

b.  The  fight  for  pure  food. 

c.  The  fight  for  clean  streets  and  better  dwellings. 

2.  Service  through  Vocation. 

a.  Value  of  a  deliberate  choice  of  life  vocation. 

b.  Danger  of  too  early  choice. 

c.  Essential  qualities  demanded  by  various  vocations. 

d.  Contributing  service  through  vocation. 

3.  Service  a  Measure  of  Success. 

a.  Conditions  and  meaning  of  success. 

b.  Biographies  of  successful  men  and  women. 

B.    Obligation.     (Instruction  through  assigned  readings,  discus- 
sion, and  composition.) 

1.  Of  the  individual  and  of  society  to  the  past,  especially 

to  writers  and  inventors  and  to  pioneers  in  educa- 
tion and  industry. 

2.  Of  the  student  to  the  community  and  the  State. 

SECOND   YEAR.— A.    Elementary  Civics. 

1.  The  community  and  community  life. 

2.  The  family  and  the  community. 

3.  The  individual  and  the  family. 

4.  The  individual  and  public  health. 

5.  The  duty  of  social  and  public  service.    Why  the  indi- 

vidual should  be  interested  in 


344  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

a.  Public  schools. 

b.  The  slums. 

c.  Social  settlement. 

d.  Public  charities. 

e.  The  church. 

B.  Studies  in  Present-day  Moral  Leadership.  (See  Bibliography. 
Accounts  of  the  work  of  social  and  political  reformers  and 
leaders  to  be  found  in  magazines  and  reviews  of  the  past 
few  years  will  also  furnish  material.) 


THIRD   YEAR.— A.    Universal  Peace. 

1.  National  interdependence. 

2.  Arbitration — national  and  industrial. 

3.  Youth,  the  schools,  and  peace. 

B.  Modern  Justice. 

1.  Newer  methods — juvenile  courts,  etc. 

2.  The  prevention  of  crime. 

3.  Modern  philanthropic  movements. 

C.  Studies  in  Moral  Leadership.    (Selected  biographies.) 


FOURTH   YEAR— A.    Instruction  in  Ethics,  and  Ethical  Read- 
ings.    (See  suggestions  already  given,  page  342.) 

B.  Discussion  of  Ethical  Questions. 

1.  The  ethics  of  modern  business. 

2.  Integrity  as  an  asset  in  business. 

3.  Courtesy  in  business. 

4.  Employer  and  employee. 

(A  number  of  concrete  ethical  situations  may  be  gath- 
ered from  men  and  women  in  actual  business  and 
professional  life.  Better  still  will  be  the  questions 
that  arise  in  the  life  of  the  school.  These  should  be 
frankly  and  fairly  discussed,  and  the  principles  in- 
volved clearly  set  forth.) 

C.  Studies  in  the  Choosing  of  a  Vocation. 

i.  Review  of  Service  through  Vocation  and  Service  a  Meas- 
ure of  Success  under  outline  for  first  year. 


MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING          345 

2.  Study  of  local  vocations  with  talks  by  professional  and 

business  men. 

3.  Study  of  local   opportunities — educational  and  voca- 

tional. 
D.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society. 

1.  The  structure  of  society. 

2.  Social  interdependence. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

CHARLES  SCOTT  BERRY,  PH.D. 
ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 

Present-Day  Interest  in  Physical  Education.— The  phys- 
ical man,  admired  by  the  Greek  because  of  his  grace 
and  beauty,  despised  by  the  Christian  because  of  his 
worldly  desires,  is  welcomed  by  the  present  as  having 
worth  in  himself,  and  as  being  an  indispensable  means 
for  attaining  the  aesthetic,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  de- 
velopment to  which  our  own  age  aspires.  The  doctrine 
of  evolution  showing  the  intimate  relation  that  exists  be- 
tween physical  and  mental  development,  and  indicative 
of  the  broadening  of  the  narrow  religious  conceptions 
which  dominated  the  past,  are  two  of  the  factors  which 
have  led  to  the  reawakening  of  the  physical  conscience. 
And  this  reawakening  is  shown  by  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  preventive  medicine  and  the  revival  of  interest 
in  physical  education.  Of  the  sciences  which  have  so 
rapidly  developed  since  the  acceptance  of  the  theory  of 
evolution,  physiology  and  hygiene  are  the  ones  most  im- 
portant in  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  health; 
for  without  health  the  highest  intellectual  and  moral  de- 
velopment cannot  be  attained. 

"  We  infer  that  as  vigorous  health  and  its  accompanying 
high  spirits  are  larger  elements  of  happiness  than  any 
other  things  whatever,  the  teaching  how  to  maintain 

346 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  347 

them  is  a  teaching  that  yields  in  moment  to  no  other 
whatever.  And,  therefore,  we  assert  that  such  a  course 
of  physiology  as  is  needful  for  the  comprehension  of  its 
general  truths,  and  their  bearings  on  daily  conduct,  is 
an  all-essential  part  of  a  rational  education."1 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  the  High  School  Curricu- 
lum.— With  this  conception  of  the  educational  impor- 
tance of  physiology  and  hygiene  let  us  turn  to  the  discus- 
sion of  their  place  and  function  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
high  school.  The  character  of  any  course  offered  in  the 
high  school  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  instruction  given  in  that  subject  in  the 
grades.  Hence,  the  importance  of  a  brief  review  of  the 
teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  grades  to 
determine  not  only  how  it  has  been  taught,  but  how  this 
instruction  is  being  modified  by  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  preventive  medicine  and  physical  education. 

Beginning  of  Movement. — The  propaganda  for  the 
teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools 
began  in  1879  when  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt  presented  to 
the  National  Convention  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union  a  plan  for  thorough  text-book  study  of 
"scientific  temperance"  in  the  public  schools,  as  a 
means  of  preventing  intemperance.  The  character  of  the 
movement  is  shown  by  the  following  quotation  from  one 
of  the  publications  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union: 

"  This  is  not  a  physiological,  but  a  temperance  move- 
ment. In  all  grades  below  the  high  school  this  instruc- 
tion should  contain  only  physiology  enough  to  make  the 
hygiene  of  temperance  and  other  laws  of  health  intelligi- 
ble. Temperance  should  be  the  chief  and  not  the  sub- 

1  Spencer,  Herbert,  "Education,"  p.  27. 


348  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ordinate  topic  and  should  occupy  at  least  one-fourth  the 
space  in  text-books  for  these  grades."1 

The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  aroused 
so  much  interest  in  this  movement  that  by  1900  nearly 
all  the  States  in  the  Union  had  enacted  laws  requiring 
instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  nature  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  and 
their  effect  upon  the  human  system,  to  be  given  in  the 
public  schools.  More  than  thirty  years  have  passed 
since  the  beginning  of  the  agitation  for  the  teaching  of 
physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  from  the 
stand-point  of  the  evil  effects  of  narcotics  and  stimulants, 
and  to-day  the  consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  that  this 
instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  has  not  been  a 
success. 

Reasons  for  Failure. — The  reasons  for  the  failure  of  a 
movement  which  promised  so  much  are  well  worth  con- 
sidering. Richard  C.  Cabot  points  out  that  the  teach- 
ing of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  has 
accomplished  so  little: 

"i.  Because  some  of  it  is  demonstrably  false,  and 
much  more  of  it  is  not  demonstrably  true.  2.  Because  it 
has  been  presented  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  preaching.  3. 
Because  the  individual  factors,  the  differences  that  make 
one  man's  meat  and  another  man's  poison,  have  been 
largely  ignored.  4.  Because  of  a  misplaced  emphasis 
on  single  organs  or  functions,  rather  than  on  the  live 
interests  of  the  child,  in  relation  to  which  the  health  of 
single  organs  gets  its  value."2  The  Committee  of  the 

1  Billings,  John  S.,  "  Physiological  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem," 
1903,  vol.  I,  p.  23. 

2  Cabot,  Richard  C.,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  "Proceedings  of  the 
First,  Second,  and  Third  Congresses  of  the  American  School  Hygiene 
Association,"  1910,  p.  201. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  349 

New  York  State  Science  Teacher's  Association1  found 
that  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  teaching  of  physiology 
and  hygiene  was  not  more  effective  in  the  schools  of  New 
York  State  were,  the  dominance  of  the  instruction  by 
legislative  enactment,  the  frequent  and  unnecessary  rep- 
etition of  the  instruction  in  the  various  grades,  and  the 
too  early  use  of  text-books.  Some  additional  reasons  cited 
by  Wood2  to  account  for  the  unsuccessful  teaching  of  hygi- 
ene in  the  schools  are,  that  the  teachers  themselves  are 
frequently  wanting  in  habits  of  hygienic  living,  that  they 
do  not  possess  the  practical  and  scientific  knowledge 
necessary  to  present  this  subject  in  an  effective  way,  that 
the  instruction  has  been  too  theoretical,  that  too  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  personal,  and  not  enough  to 
social  hygiene,  that  too  much  emphasis  has  been  placed 
on  disease  and  not  enough  on  health,  and  that  the  text- 
books contain  too  much  anatomy  and  physiology  and 
not  enough  sanitation,  bacteriology,  and  industrial  and 
social  hygiene. 

But  the  fundamental  reason  why  the  teaching  of  hygiene 
and  physiology  has  been  so  unsuccessful  in  the  grades 
is  that  we  have  signally  failed  to  recognize:  first,  that 
right  living  or  the  formation  of  hygienic  habits  should 
precede  the  understanding  of  the  scientific  reasons  for  the 
formation  of  such  habits;  and,  second,  that  instruction 
to  be  effective  must  be  positive,  not  negative.  The  neg- 
lect of  the  first  of  these  two  fundamental  principles  has 
caused  us  to  emphasize  theory  instead  of  practice.  We 
have  sought  to  give  the  child  a  knowledge  of  physiology 

l"  School  Instruction  in  the  Effects  of  Stimulants  and  Narcotics," 
Educational  Review,  vol.  XXIV,  1902,  p.  45. 

2  Wood,  T.  D.,  "The  Ninth  Year-Book  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,"  Parti,  "Health  and  Education,"  1910,  p.  63. 


350  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  hygiene,  forgetting  that  the  Socratic  maxim  that 
knowledge  is  virtue  holds  only  when  habits  of  right  living 
have  already  been  formed.  The  neglect  of  the  second 
fundamental  principle  is  most  apparent  in  the  so-called 
temperance  instruction.  In  this  instruction  we  have  for- 
gotten that  every  idea  tends  to  express  itself  in  action, 
and  instead  of  teaching  the  child,  who  is  naturally  active, 
what  he  should  do  we  have,  instead,  spent  much  time  and 
energy  in  teaching  him  what  he  should  not  do.  The  in- 
struction has  been  negative  in  its  nature,  and,  as  one 
might  expect,  largely  negative  in  its  results. 

Present  Status  of  Subject. — After  this  brief  review  of 
the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  grades,  let 
us  now  attempt  to  determine  the  existing  status  of  these 
subjects  in  the  high  school.  Gulick's1  investigation 
shows  that  only  sixteen  per  cent  of  two  thousand  three 
hundred  ninety-two  public  schools  in  the  United  States 
are  giving  regular  instruction  in  hygiene.  Crosby  sent  a 
questionnaire2  to  seventy  high  school  principals  of  Iowa. 
Among  the  questions  asked  was  the  following  one: 

"Do  your  pupils  like  physiology  as  well  as  they  like 
other  laboratory  sciences  ?"  Of  those  who  answered  the 
question  only  twenty-seven  per  cent  replied  "Yes"; 
seventy-three  per  cent  said  "No." 

In  discussing  the  teaching  of  physiology  in  the  high 
school  Crosby  points  out  that  "the  method  of  presenta- 
tion is  the  same  as  that  in  the  grades,  whereas  an  en- 
tirely new  method  of  approach  is  desirable.  As  far  as 

1  Gulick,  L.  H.,  "Status  of  Physical  Education  in  Ninety  Public  Nor- 
mal Schools  and  Two  Thousand  Three  Hundred  and  Ninety-two  Public 
High  Schools  in  the  United  States,"  "Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Con- 
gress of  the  American  School  Hygiene  Association,"  1910,  p.  175. 

*  Crosby,  Clifford,  "Physiology,  How  and  How  Much?"  School 
Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  VII,  1907,  p.  738. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE  351 

my  knowledge  of  the  matter  goes  teachers  are  doing  the 
physiology  work  in  the  grades  in  about  the  same  way 
that  it  is  done  in  the  high  school.  The  same  threadbare 
experiments  are  performed,  and  the  same  demonstra- 
tions are  made,  the  point  of  view  remaining  the  same  in 
all  grades.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  process  has  been 
going  on  through  several  grades,  the  pupils  as  a  rule  are 
tired  of  the  subject  and  have  little  respect  for  what  they 
have  learned." 

Crosby  found  that  fifty-two  per  cent  of  the  schools 
which  answered  his  questionnaire  offered  physiology  be- 
fore either  botany  or  zoology,  and  that  physiology  was 
taught  during  the  first  year  in  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cases 
reported.  A  more  extended  investigation,  by  Hunter,1 
of  the  teaching  of  biologic  science  in  the  secondary  schools 
of  the  United  States  brings  to  light  the  fact  that  of  one 
hundred  and  ninety-three  high  schools  offering  physi- 
ology and  hygiene  fifty-four  per  cent  of  them  teach  these 
subjects  in  the  first  year,  eighteen  per  cent  in  the  second 
year,  eleven  per  cent  in  the  third  year,  and  seventeen  per 
cent  in  the  fourth  year.  In  some  States  the  law  requires 
the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  first  year 
of  the  high  school.  This  accounts,  to  some  extent,  for  the 
high  percentage  of  schools  offering  these  subjects  in  the 
first  year  of  the  high  school  course.  For  in  Massachu- 
setts, where  the  law  does  not  specify  in  which  year  of  the 
high  school  physiology  is  to  be  taught,  of  the  forty  high 
schools  replying  to  the  questionnaire  ten  teach  it  in  the 
first  year,  five  in  the  second,  twelve  in  the  third,  and 
thirteen  in  the  fourth.  These  and  other  investigations 

'Hunter,  G.  W.,  "The  Methods,  Content,  and  Purpose  of  Biologic 
Science  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States,"  School  Science 
and  Mathematics,  vol.  X,  1910,  p.  3. 


352  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

show :  first,  that  the  majority  of  the  high  schools  are  not 
even  offering  any  systematic  instruction  in  physiology 
and  hygiene;  second,  that  in  more  than  half  of  the  schools 
where  the  subject  is  taught  it  comes  in  the  first  year  of 
the  high  school  course,  before  the  pupils  have  had  either 
biology,  chemistry,  or  physics;  third,  that  it  is  taught 
in  about  the  same  way  as  in  the  grades;  and,  fourth, 
that  the  results  are  generally  unsatisfactory. 

However,  the  situation  is  not  quite  so  hopeless  as  it 
appears  to  be,  because  there  are,  at  the  present  time, 
certain  factors  which  are  slowly  changing,  and  are  bound 
to  transform  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  physiology  not 
only  in  the  grades,  but  in  the  high  school  as  well.  These 
factors  are  medical  inspection  and  physical  education. 

Medical  Inspection. — From  the  discovery  of  the  bacil- 
lus of  tuberculosis  in  1882  the  watchword  of  the  medical 
profession  has  been  the  prevention  of  disease.  To  pro- 
tect the  child  and  the  community  medical  inspection  for 
the  detection  of  infectious  and  contagious  diseases  was 
begun  in  the  schools  of  New  York  City  in  1892.  Since 
that  time  the  movement  has  spread  rapidly,  until  now 
most  of  our  large  cities  have  medical  inspection.  At 
first  this  work  was  under  the  control  and  direction  of  the 
Board  of  Health.  The  teacher  had  nothing  more  to  do 
than  to  report  the  cases  that  appeared  to  be  in  need  of 
medical  attention.  But  with  the  extension  of  medical 
inspection  to  include  examinations  for  the  detection  of 
non-contagious  defects  the  school  board  and  the  teacher 
were  required  to  play  a  more  active  part.  The  examina- 
tions of  school  children  at  home  and  abroad  show  that 
from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  of  the  school  children  have 
defective  eyesight,  that  over  fifty  per  cent  are  suffering 
from  defective  teeth,  that  over  five  per  cent  have  defec- 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  353 

tive  hearing,  and  that  large  numbers  are  suffering  from 
mal-nutrition,  adenoids,  and  other  defects.  As  a  result 
of  the  publication  of  these  facts  relating  to  the  physical 
condition  of  the  school  child,  much  interest  has  been 
aroused  in  making  the  conditions  of  school  life  more  hygi- 
enic, in  seeing  that  the  school-rooms  are  properly  lighted, 
heated,  and  ventilated,  and  in  instructing  the  child  in 
hygienic  ways  of  living. 

Revival  of  Interest  in  Physical  Education. — The  other 
factor  which  is  arousing  the  interest  of  the  teacher  in  the 
physical  welfare  of  the  school  child  is  the  revival  of  in- 
terest in  physical  education,  as  is  shown  by  the  remark- 
able growth  of  athletics  and  gymnastics  in  the  colleges, 
secondary  schools,  and  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions, and  by  the  phenomenal  spread  of  the  playground 
movement.  The  attendance  at  the  gymnasia  and  ath- 
letic fields  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  increased  over  three 
hundred  per  cent  during  the  past  ten  years,1  and  during 
the  same  period  of  time  Mero2  estimates  that  about 
fifty  millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in  the  purchase, 
equipment,  and  maintenance  of  playgrounds  in  the 
United  States.  In  fact,  the  playground  has  proved  to  be 
such  an  important  factor  in  bettering  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  children  in  the  poorer  districts  of  the  large 
cities  that  Massachusetts  and  Virginia  have  enacted  laws 
making  provision  for  the  establishment  of  playgrounds 
in  all  cities  of  more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants. 

These  two  aspects  of  the  movement  for  physical  wel- 
fare— medical  inspection  and  physical  education — are 
causing  the  teacher  to  see  that  the  mental  and  moral 

'"Year-Books  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  of  North 
America"  for  1899  and  1008—9. 

*Mero,  "American  Playgrounds,"  1908,  p.  ao. 


354  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

development  of  the  child  is  closely  bound  up  with  his 
physical  welfare.  As  a  result,  more  interest  is  being 
manifested  in  the  physical  well-being  of  the  school  child 
to-day  than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  modern  educa- 
tion. 

Present  Methods  of  Organization. — That  medical  in- 
spection and  physical  education  are  beginning  to  vitalize 
the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  is  very  evident 
when  we  consider  what  is  now  being  done  in  some  of  the 
large  cities.  In  1907,  the  School  Committee  of  Boston 
voted  to  create  a  department  of  school  hygiene.  The 
whole  department  was  placed  under  the  control  of  one 
director,  who  has  general  supervision  over  all  matters  af- 
fecting the  physical  welfare  of  the  pupils  and  teachers. 
This  director  has  control  of  medical  inspection  (except  that 
under  the  supervision  of  the  board  of  health),  a  corps  of 
trained  nurses,  the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene 
in  the  grades,  the  teaching  of  gymnastics,  playground  in- 
struction, and  athletic  training  of  all  kinds,  both  in  the 
elementary  and  in  the  secondary  schools.1  St.  Louis 
has  recently  established  a  department  of  school  hygiene, 
and  Superintendent  Maxwell  is  using  all  of  his  influence 
to  have  such  a  department  established  in  the  schools  of 
New  York  City.  The  department  of  physical  training  in 
the  latter  city  is  attempting  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 
child  in  his  physical  well-being  by  giving  a  certain  amount 
of  credit,  not  only  for  proficiency  in  athletics  and  gymnas- 
tics, but  also  for  the  formation  of  hygienic  habits.  Ward 
Crampton,  M.D.,  director  of  physical  education  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  York  City,  says: 

"Instruction  should  be  related  to  the  constantly  re- 
curring incidents  of  daily  life,  rather  than  to  the  structure 

1  "Annual  Report  of  School  Committee  of  Boston,"  1908. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  355 

of  the  body,  for  the  child  concerns  itself  with  the.  doing 
of  things  rather  than  with  its  own  bodily  composition. 
Instruction  should  be  practical  rather  than  theoretical, 
and  should  be  taken  from  experience  rather  than  from  a 
book.  .  .  .  All  pupils  should  be  examined  in  hygiene 
and  marked  thereon  for  promotion.  By  this  I  do  not 
mean  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  write  down  a  number  of 
bones  in  the  body  or  the  function  of  the  bile — I  mean  a 
mark  in  practical  hygiene;  the  mark  that  the  hygiene 
authority  and  instruction  of  the  school  have  left  upon 
the  physical  being  of  the  student."  * 

Here  we  see  that  in  the  teaching  of  physiology  and 
hygiene  in  the  grades  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  for- 
mation of  habits  of  hygienic  living  and  not  on  the  expla- 
nation of  the  scientific  reasons  for  the  formation  of  such 
habits.  It  is  true  that  the  teacher  explains  to  the  child 
the  importance  of  forming  habits  of  hygienic  living. 
But  these  explanations  must  necessarily  be  adapted  to 
the  understanding  and  experience  of  the  child,  and  that 
means  that  the  scientific  reasons  cannot  successfully  be 
given  at  this  stage  of  the  child's  development.  We  have 
tried  that  for  many  years  in  teaching  the  facts  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  as  a  basis  for  the  instruction  in  hygiene. 
The  result  has  been  that  we  have  succeeded  in  getting 
the  child  neither  to  form  hygienic  habits  nor  to  under- 
stand the  importance  of  forming  such  habits. 

"  We  have  assumed  that  one  must  know  the  structure  of 
the  organ,  then  its  function,  before  one  can  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  properly  care  for  it.  This  implies  a  capacity  for 
learning  and  an  ability  to  reason  far  beyond  the  powers 

1  Crampton,  Ward,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  "Proceedings  of 
the  Fourth  Congress  of  American  School  Hygiene  Association,  5:910," 
p.  138. 


356  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

of  our  pre-adolescent  school  population.  It  implies  also 
an  ability  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  results  of  mature 
consideration  which  is  obviously  lacking."  * 

But  it  is  not  enough  to  form  hygienic  habits,  important 
as  that  is;  the  youth  must  know  the  scientific  reasons 
for  the  formation  of  such  habits  if  these  habits  are  to  be 
made  permanent  in  an  environment  unfavorable  to  their 
continuance,  and  if  the  youth  is  to  become  an  active  agent 
in  the  war  against  unsanitary  conditions.  This  means 
that  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  should  be 
given  in  the  high  school  as  well  as  in  the  grades.  And  this 
is  all  the  more  evident  when  we  consider  the  remarkable 
increase  in  the  number  of  colleges  and  universities  which 
have  recently  introduced  hygiene  into  their  courses  of 
study. 

"In  1884  hygiene  was  taught  in  28,  or  60.9  per  cent,  of 
46  leading  colleges.  In  1909,  hygiene  was  taught  in  97, 
or  83.6  per  cent,  of  116  leading  colleges.  The  most  re- 
markable development  of  recent  years  is  the  placing  of 
hygiene  in  the  regular  curriculum  as  a  prescribed  subject. 
Hygiene  was  prescribed  in  47  colleges  in  1910.  Before 
1890  only  6  colleges,  or  12.8  per  cent,  prescribed  hygiene. 
From  1890  to  1900,  10  colleges,  or  21.3  per  cent,  pre- 
scribed hygiene.  From  1900  to  1910,  31  colleges,  or 
63.9  per  cent,  prescribed  hygiene.  The  fact  that  nearly 
80  per  cent  of  the  colleges  offering  regular  courses  in 
hygiene  give  positive  credit  toward  the  bachelor's  degree 
for  these  courses,  is  further  proof  that  hygiene  is  now 
considered  an  important  branch  of  education."  2 

1  Ibid.,  p.  138. 

2  Meylan,  G.  L.,  "  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Status  of  Instruction 
in  Hygiene  in  American  Educational  Institutions,"  "Proceedings  of  the 
Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hygiene  Association,  1910," 
p.  J73. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE  357 

If  it  is  so  important  that  the  few  who  go  to  college 
should  study  hygiene  it  is  even  more  important  that  the 
many  who  attend  the  high  school,  but  who  will  never 
enter  college,  should  have  a  scientific  knowledge  of  this 
subject. 

Nature  of  Course. — Then,  if  it  is  granted  that  a  course 
in  physiology  and  hygiene  has  a  place  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  high  school,  what  should  be  the  nature  of  this 
course  ?  The  aim  of  a  high  school  course  in  physiology 
and  hygiene  should  be  to  give  the  pupil  a  scientific 
knowledge,  as  far  as  that  is  possible,  of  the  principles  of 
physiology,  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  physical  education, 
with  a  view  to  their  practical  application.  But  if  this 
aim  is  to  be  realized  the  pupil  must  have  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  biology,  and  should  also  have  studied  chem- 
istry and  physics  before  beginning  the  proposed  course  in 
physiology  and  hygiene.  Then,  too,  the  greater  maturity 
of  the  pupil  enables  him  to  pursue  such  a  course  to  better 
advantage  in  the  later  years  of  the  high  school.  For  if  this 
course  is  given  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  before 
the  pupil  has  studied  biology,  chemistry,  or  physics,  as 
is  the  case  at  the  present  time  in  the  majority  of  the  high 
schools,  it  can  be  little  more  than  a  continuation  of  the 
work  that  the  pupil  has  already  passed  over  in  the  grades. 
That  kind  of  a  course,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  ac- 
complishing but  little  in  the  high  schools  at  the  present 
time.  However,  in  some  States  the  law  requires  the 
teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  first  year  of  the 
high  school.  It  has  been  suggested  that  where  physi- 
ology must  be  taught  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school 
it  can  to  advantage  be  made  part  of  the  course  in  biology. 
Assuming  that  the  pupil  has  already  some  knowledge  of 
biology  and  chemistry,  the  subject-matter  of  the  proposed 


358  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

course  in  physiology  and  hygiene  should  include  physi- 
ology, bacteriology  (which  is  essential  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  nature  of  infectious  and  contagious  diseases), 
personal  and  social  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  physical  edu- 
cation. In  the  grades  the  emphasis  doubtless  should 
be  placed  on  personal  hygiene,  the  formation  of  hygienic 
habits.  But  the  high  school  age  is  the  period  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  social  instincts.  And  now  is  the  time 
to  emphasize  social  hygiene  and  sanitation.  Let  the 
youth  realize  that  in  living  hygienically  he  is  doing  but 
half  his  duty;  the  other  half  is  to  co-operate  with  others 
in  the  struggle  to  transform  an  environment  unfavorable 
to  the  health  of  the  community.  The  history  of  the  con- 
quest of  yellow-fever  in  Cuba  and  the  Panama  Canal 
zone  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  vitalizing  the  knowl- 
'  edge  we  wish  to  impart.  For  there  are  few  pages  in 
modern  history  more  fascinating  and  few  illustrate  more 
strikingly  the  power  of  knowledge  than  those  which  tell 
of  man's  desperate  struggle  with  disease. 

We  have  already  seen  that  there  is  a  growing  tendency 
in  the  large  cities  to  place  all  those  interests  which  relate 
to  the  health  and  physical  development  of  the  child  in  a 
department  of  school  hygiene.  Meylan's  investigation 
shows  that  there  is  also  a  tendency  in  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities "  to  correlate  all  the  interests  related  to  the  physi- 
cal welfare  of  the  students  in  the  department  of  physical 
education  or  of  hygiene  and  physical  education.  The  ac- 
tivities usually  grouped  in  that  department  include  the 
teaching  of  hygiene,  gymnastics,  and  athletics,  the  care  of 
the  students'  health  and,  in  some  cases,  the  supervision 
of  the  sanitary  condition  of  school  buildings,  dormitories, 
kitchens,  water  supply,  and  grounds.  The  further  de- 
velopment of  this  growing  tendency  is  limited  only  by 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  359 

the  supply  of  men  possessing  the  necessary  character, 
general  education,  professional  training,  administrative 
ability,  and  sympathetic  personality  to  properly  direct  a 
department  of  so  broad  and  diversified  interests."  l 

It  seems  no  less  desirable  and  important  in  the  high 
school  than  in  the  college  to  have  the  same  person  who 
teaches  the  physiology  and  hygiene  have  also  general 
supervision  over  all  other  interests  which  relate  to  the 
physical  welfare  of  the  pupils.  In  most  of  the  high 
schools  one  teacher  has  directed  the  work  of  athletics  and 
physical  education  and  another  has  taught  the  physiology 
and  hygiene,  each  working  without  reference  to  the  other. 
The  result  has  been  that  the  teaching  of  physiology  and 
hygiene  has  been  too  theoretical;  it  has  not  touched  the 
practical  interests  of  the  pupil.  But  when  the  teacher 
of  the  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene  is  also  director  of 
athletics  and  physical  education,  the  tendency  is  to  place 
more  emphasis  upon  hygiene  and  less  on  physiology. 
The  teacher  is  more  apt  to  regard  biology  and  physiology 
as  subjects  whose  prime  aim  is  to  teach  the  pupil  how  to 
live.  In  fact,  the  playground  and  the  gymnasium  be- 
come laboratories  for  applying  the  principles  of  hygiene 
which  are  discussed  in  the  class  room.  Here  is  an  op- 
portunity of  correlating  physical  training  with  mental 
development  in  a  more  thoroughgoing  and  fundamental 
way  than  has  yet  been  carried  out  in  the  high  schools. 

Training  of  Teacher. — This  means,  however,  that  the 
training  of  the  teacher  of  science  must  be  broadened  to 
include  courses  in  hygiene,  sanitation,  bacteriology,  and 
physical  training.  For  the  teacher  of  the  proposed  course 
in  physiology  and  hygiene  should  be  as  much  interested 
in  the  practical  as  in  the  theoretical  side  of  the  subject. 
1  Ibid.,  p.  173. 


360  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

But  if  the  teaching  of  hygiene  is  to  be  effective,  is  to  leave 
its  mark  on  the  pupil,  not  only  must  the  education  of 
the  teacher  of  this  special  subject  be  broadened,  but  the 
health-conscience  of  the  teacher  in  general  must  be 
aroused.  It  is  just  as  important  for  the  teacher  to  feel 
responsible  for  the  physical  welfare  of  the  child  as  for 
his  moral  welfare.  The  teacher  is  not  employed  pri- 
marily to  teach  morals,  yet  he  is  required  to  do  all  he  can 
to  inculcate  moral  principles  and  be  a  worthy  example. 
And  surely  it  is  not  asking  too  much  for  the  teacher  to 
receive  such  an  education  that  he  will  take  the  same  atti- 
tude toward  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  the  practising  of 
hygienic  living  that  he  now  takes  toward  the  inculcating 
of  moral  principles  and  the  living  of  a  moral  life.  When 
this  point  is  reached,  and  not  until  then,  will  the  teaching 
of  physiology  and  hygiene  be  as  effective  as  the  nature  of 
the  material,  the  importance  of  the  subject-matter,  and 
the  demands  of  the  time  require. 


CHAPTER   XX 
SEX  PEDAGOGY  IN  THE  HIGH   SCHOOL 

ALDRED  SCOTT  WAETHIN,  PH.D.,  M.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF   PATHOLOGY   AND    DIRECTOR   OF   THE  PATHOLOGIC 
LABORATORIES    IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF   MICHIGAN 

The  Problem. — The  most  remarkable  paradox  of  our 
civilization  is  its  attitude  toward  the  most  important 
thing  of  life — the  reproductive  function,  about  which 
centre  the  most  vital  interests  of  the  individual  and  of 
the  race.  Over  all  things  concerning  sex  there  has  been 
thrown  an  unholy  veil  of  mystery  and  concealment,  reti- 
cence and  prudery;  and  from  this  strange  taboo  condi- 
tions have  been  gradually  developed  that  now  threaten  the 
very  foundations  of  our  society  in  the  shape  of  disease, 
white  slavery,  disintegration  of  the  family,  divorce,  and 
race  suicide.  Never  approached  as  things  sacred  or 
holy,  matters  of  sex  have  been  relegated  by  the  modern 
world  to  the  background  as  unclean,  to  be  referred  to  dis- 
creetly, or  with  double  meaning,  or  to  be  made  the  sub- 
ject of  vulgar  jest  or  suggestion.  For  this  state  of  things 
parents  have  been  primarily  to  blame.  Certainly  theirs 
the  duty,  if  any  one's,  to  bring  up  children  in  full  knowl- 
edge of  their  bodies  and  of  the  meaning  of  life;  and  to 
prepare  them  to  escape  the  frightful  dangers  that  sexual 
ignorance  entails.  But  the  average  parent  evades  this 
sacred  duty  as  a  thing  too  delicate  for  sober  discussion, 
and  the  boy  is  left  to  gather  from  all  possible  sources, 

3*1 


362  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

most  of  them  improper,  a  distorted  and  imperfect  knowl- 
edge of  sexual  matters,  only  to  learn  from  his  own  bitter 
experiences,  when  too  late,  that  his  parents  have  be- 
trayed him  in  not  preparing  him  fully  to  meet  the  prob- 
lems of  the  sexual  life.  This  great  failure  of  parents  to 
give  the  most  needed  aid  to  their  children  has  been  all  the 
more  paradoxical  in  a  generation  which  has  so  vaunted 
the  value  of  knowledge  and  education  along  all  other 
lines  of  thought.  From  this  one  path  modern  society, 
particularly  the  Anglo-Saxon,  has  continually  turned 
away  in  foolish  fear  and  prudery,  hesitating  to  call  things 
by  their  proper  names  and  avoiding  the  main  issue  at  all 
hazards.  If  we  seek  for  an  explanation  of  this  sad  para- 
dox it  may  be  found  in  certain  aspects  of  modern  religious 
beliefs.  In  the  revolt  of  the  primitive  Christian  church 
against  the  excess  and  license  of  Roman  civilization;  in 
the  separation  by  the  church  of  things  carnal  and  things 
spiritual;  and  in  the  false  and  exaggerated  conceptions 
of  chastity  developed  during  the  monastic  period  are  to 
be  found  the  sources  of  the  modern  world's  degradation 
of  sex  which  has  supplanted  the  pagan  glorification  and 
worship  of  the  reproductive  function.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  Christian  teachings  the  body  and  all  of  its  func- 
tions, particularly  the  sexual,  have  been  divorced  from 
the  spiritual  side  of  man's  nature  and  debased  as  agents 
hindering  his  salvation.  Mediaeval  medicine  still  fur- 
ther complicated  matters  by  fostering  the  belief  that  con- 
tinence was  incompatible  with  health,  and  the  two  con- 
flicting principles  thus  engrafted  on  our  civilization  are 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  present-day  attitude  of  com- 
promise and  hypocrisy  toward  sexual  matters. 

As  a  result  of  this  attitude  society  is  being  brought  face 
to  face  with  such  conditions  that  it  must  in  self-protection 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  363 

recognize  and  change  them,  if  it  escape  self-destruction. 
Modern  medicine  has  been  the  first  to  herald  a  new  era 
— that  of  plain  speech  and  frank  education  in  sex  mat- 
ters. It  has  shown  the  frightful  prevalence  of  the  dis- 
eases arising  from  sexual  promiscuity;  the  pathologic 
and  bacteriologic  laboratories  of  the  present  generation 
have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  most  common  of 
these  diseases,  gonorrhoea,  formerly  regarded  as  of  slight 
consequence,  is  in  reality  one  of  the  most  serious  afflic- 
tions of  the  race,  since  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  cases 
the  individuals  infected  with  it  become  germ-carriers  for 
years,  often  without  visible  consequences  to  themselves, 
but  passing  the  infective  organisms  on  to  innocent  wives 
in  whom  the  most  serious  consequences  may  be  pro- 
duced. The  relationship  of  this  infection  to  pelvic  dis- 
ease in  woman  and  the  great  frequency  with  which  it 
causes  chronic  invalidism,  sterility,  or  conditions  requir- 
ing serious  operations  are  matters  of  relatively  recent 
medical  acquisition,  but  are  now  preached  with  full 
authority  to  laymen. 

The  protean  manifestations  of  syphilis  have  likewise 
been  recognized,  and  the  venereal  origin  of  many  or- 
ganic affections  of  the  brain,  heart,  liver,  kidneys,  blood- 
vessels, and  spinal  cord  is  now  accepted  without  any 
doubt.  The  researches  of  each  year  only  serve  to  in- 
crease and  extend  our  knowledge  of  these  diseases  and 
to  increase  our  appreciation  of  the  frightful  havoc  in 
human  life  and  happiness  that  results  from  the  modern 
conceptions  of  sex  relationship  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
great  mass  of  laymen  in  matters  of  sexual  physiology  and 
hygiene.  Medical  opinion  has  also  been  greatly  changed 
in  regard  to  the  significance  of  certain  sexual  phenomena 
and  in  the  relation  of  health  and  sexual  continence. 


364  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  exaggerated  views  of  the  evils  of  self-abuse  formerly 
held  by  the  medical  profession  as  a  whole  are  giving 
place  to  a  saner  consideration  of  the  effects  of  this  habit. 

Just  as  soon  as  medicine  could  show  that  the  infectious 
diseases  are  unnecessary  and  preventable  it  became  in- 
evitable that  a  campaign  of  prevention  should  be  initi- 
ated by  its  leaders.  We  are  now  in  the  midst  of  a  new 
era — one  of  crusades  against  disease.  In  the  educa- 
tional campaign  against  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  ma- 
laria, hook-worm  disease,  and  other  infectious  diseases, 
medicine  must  include  also  the  most  important  of  all  of 
these — the  venereal  diseases — and  a  crusade  of  preven- 
tion must  likewise  be  instituted  against  them.  Medicine 
has  so  spoken,  and  at  its  word  society  is  being  aroused  to 
a  new  consciousness.  Social  workers  are  showing  the 
tremendous  waste  of  female  life  needed  to  keep  up  the 
institution  of  prostitution — a  necessary  evil,  according  to 
our  mediaeval  ideas  of  sex  matters.  Studies  of  city  and 
country  life  are  showing  how  wide-spread  is  the  social 
evil  and  its  physical  consequences.  Economists  and 
statesmen  are  concerned  over  the  increase  in  divorces  and 
the  disintegration  of  family  units;  and  the  dangers  of 
race  suicide  are  becoming  subjects  of  every-day  conver- 
sation. Legislators  are  appalled  at  the  increasing  finan- 
cial demands  made  by  the  insane  asylums  and  other  in- 
stitutions the  very  existence  of  which  is  chiefly  dependent 
upon  the  results  of  vice  and  venereal  disease.  The  edu- 
cational campaign  spreads  farther  through  the  influence 
of  editors,  preachers,  and  educators  who  have  grasped 
the  truth  of  the  situation. 

The  more  intelligent  minds  of  the  race  having  achieved 
the  knowledge  of  the  paradox  and  its  disastrous  influence 
upon  society,  its  filtration  to  the  masses  becomes  only  a 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  365 

question  of  time.  In  this  case  the  ground  has  been  well 
prepared  by  the  sad  experiences  of  thousands  of  individ- 
uals, who  with  bitterness  lay  the  responsibility  for  their 
moral  and  physical  undoing  to  the  failure  of  parents  and 
teachers  to  give  them  proper  education  in  sex  matters. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  modern  movement  for  temper- 
ance, so  in  this  movement  for  sex  instruction  does  the  cool 
reasoning  of  the  average  citizen,  based  either  upon  his 
own  experience  or  upon  the  observation  of  others,  con- 
stitute the  force  that  within  a  few  years  has  brought  about 
a  great  movement  throughout  this  country  for  plain 
truth  in  matters  of  sex  education.  Initiated  by  the  medi- 
cal profession,  the  campaign  for  education  in  the  ethics 
and  hygiene  of  sex  has  been  taken  up  by  educators  in  the 
universities  and  colleges,  by  editors,  social  workers,  and, 
finally,  by  the  church. 

Last  of  all  to  take  part  in  the  movement  have  been  the 
educators  in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  These 
teachers,  like  the  average  parent,  remain  afraid  to  touch 
the  subject,  or  are  blind  to  the  actual  conditions  about 
them,  denying  the  facts,  opposing  discussion  or  disclosure, 
casting  accusations  of  exaggerations  or  pruriency  upon 
those  who  do  brave  public  opinion  by  recognition  of 
conditions,  or  advocating  the  old  policy  of  silence  and 
prudery.  Other  teachers  see  the  facts  and  are  greatly 
troubled  over  them,  but  feel  helpless;  lacking  knowledge 
themselves,  they  confess  their  inadequacy  to  meet  the 
situation.  Only  here  and  there  do  we  find  exceptions, 
in  the  case  of  younger  teachers,  mostly  recent  university 
graduates,  who  carry  to  the  schools  the  knowledge  con- 
cerning these  matters  they  have  obtained  from  university 
lectures.  These  men  feel  themselves  handicapped  by 
lack  of  knowledge  sufficient  to  present  the  subject  in  an 


366  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

authoritative  manner;  but  they  have  served  to  extend 
the  campaign,  and  for  the  chief  part  they  find  a  ready 
co-operation  of  parents  in  their  attempts  at  guiding  the 
high  school  student  into  an  ethical  and  hygienic  path 
sexually. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  psychologic  moment 
has  arrived  when  the  primary  and  secondary  schools 
must  take  up  into  the  curriculum  earnest  and  definite 
methods  of  teaching  the  ethics  and  hygiene  of  sex.  It  is 
discouraging  that  the  great  mass  of  teachers  has  been 
so  slow  to  awaken  to  a  knowledge  of  the  need  for  this 
kind  of  teaching;  but  the  reason  need  not  be  sought  far 
in  the  difficult  nature  of  the  problem  of  just  what  should 
be  taught,  how  much,  and  when,  and  by  whom.  No 
greater,  certainly  no  more  vital  problem,  presents  itself 
to-day  for  the  thoughtful  consideration  of  our  educators 
— and  certainly  no  more  difficult  one.  Just  when  we 
should  begin  to  present  sex  matters  to  the  attention  of 
the  child,  in  how  dilute  or  complete  a  form  should  this 
knowledge  be  given,  how  to  achieve  such  teaching  with- 
out arousing  morbid  fears  and  giving  birth  to  psychoses, 
or  without  prematurely  stimulating  sexual  instincts,  how 
much  of  this  sex  knowledge  should  be  taught  at  home, 
how  much  left  to  the  teacher,  and  the  part  the  physi- 
cian should  play  in  this  sex  pedagogy,  are  but  the  chief 
features  of  the  greatest  and  most  important  pedagogi- 
cal problem  of  the  day.  Indeed,  we  must  realize  that 
the  field  of  sex  pedagogy  is  practically  undeveloped,  and 
that  no  part  of  it  has  been  worked  out  in  any  satisfac- 
tory way.  The  whole  matter  will  have  to  be  attacked 
experimentally  and  our  pedagogic  judgments  must  be 
based  upon  the  actual  results  of  practice.  No  other  sub- 
ject admits  less  of  theorizing  than  this  one;  and  no  dog- 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  367 

matic  statements  can  be  made  as  to  the  best  way  in  which 
to  proceed.  To  Germany  we  may  look  for  some  help, 
for  German  conscience  has  been  aroused  earlier  than 
ours,  and  for  some  years  an  agitation  for  sex  pedagogy 
has  been  developing  there  upon  a  foundation  both  ethical 
and  scientific.  But  while  the  difficulty  of  the  problem 
may  argue  for  caution  it  must  not  be  taken  as  an  argu- 
ment for  too  great  prudence.  Better  to  attack  the  situa- 
tion, even  if  we  do  it  imperfectly.  On  one  point  the 
opinion  of  experts  upon  this  subject  is  unanimous — 
something  must  be  done;  and  society  in  a  vague  unrest 
and  dissatisfaction  over  existing  conditions  is  expecting 
help  from  the  schools.  Parents  have  acknowledged  their 
weakness  and  their  inability;  and  although  theoretically 
we  may  believe  that  sex  teaching  should  be  done  by  the 
parents  and  in  the  home,  we  also  know  that  a  moral  and 
intellectual  regeneration  of  the  present  generation  of 
American  parents  would  have  to  be  accomplished  first, 
before  such  teaching  is  possible.  Such  a  parental  re- 
generation is  beyond  the  range  of  possibility,  hence  the 
schools  must  take  up  the  burden  of  fighting  sex  igno- 
rance just  as  thoroughly  as  they  have  been  occupied  with 
the  fight  against  illiteracy. 

Within  the  last  five  years  societies  advocating  the 
teaching  of  sex  matters  to  school-children  have  been 
formed  in  seventeen  States,  and  actual  instruction  of  this 
kind  is  now  being  given  in  some  schools  in  New  York, 
Maryland,  Michigan,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  Scat- 
tered attempts  elsewhere  have  been  made;  but  all  of 
these  efforts  have  been  almost  wholly  the  work  of  medi- 
cal men  and  have  been  concerned  chiefly  with  the  spread- 
ing of  the  knowledge  of  the  dangers  of  the  venereal  dis- 
eases. The  medical  interest  in  this  crusade  has  been 


368  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

chiefly  one  of  disease  prevention  and  has  appealed  to  the 
element  of  fear.  For  this  reason  the  campaign  against 
venereal  diseases  has  been  criticised  by  some  educators  as 
an  attempt  to  frighten  young  men  into  virtue.  But  it  is 
accomplishing  what  religious  and  moral  instruction  up 
to  the  present  time  has  not  succeeded  in  doing,  by  arous- 
ing a  popular  movement  for  sexual  purity  on  the  grounds 
of  physical  welfare.  More  than  this  is  neededr however; 
there  must  be  developed  a  higher  ideal  of  sexual  relation- 
ship in  its  broadest  meaning.  Our  young  people  must  be 
taught  not  only  the  physical  evils  of  sexual  misuse  or 
abuse,  but  the  significance  and  value  of  normal  sex  rela- 
tionships must  be  interpreted  for  them  in  no  uncertain 
terms.  The  best  as  well  as  the  worst  aspects  must  be 
shown,  the  physiologic  as  well  as  the  pathologic. 

Methods  of  Attacking  the  Problem. — Within  the  limits 
of  so  short  a  chapter  but  little  more  can  be  done  than  to 
sketch  very  briefly  the  main  points  to  be  considered  in 
sex  pedagogy  in  the  high  school.  As  my  own  experience 
in  such  teaching  has  been  almost  wholly  confined  to 
university  or  college  men  my  views  upon  this  matter  have 
been  very  slowly  taking  form  through  the  knowledge  of 
the  secondary  schools  gained  from  talks  with  university 
students  coming  from  the  high  school  and  with  high 
school  teachers.  Fifteen  years  of  experience  in  lecturing 
to  college  men  upon  sexual  ethics  and  hygiene  has  con- 
vinced me  that  the  great  majority  of  young  men  who  com- 
mit sexual  errors  do  so  while  in  the  high  school,  and 
that  for  such  the  lectures  in  the  university  come  too 
late.  In  talking  with  university  students  I  find  that  they 
insist  upon  the  need  for  such  instruction  in  the  lower 
schools,  and  an  often  heard  comment  is  an  expressed  wish 
that  such  instruction  had  been  given  in  the  high  school 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  369 

at  home.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  a  certain  number  of 
men  who  enter  the  colleges  still  clean  lose  themselves 
while  students,  usually  as  the  result  of  drinking  habits 
acquired  during  the  college  course  or  the  influence  of 
evil-minded  companions  who  have  had  a  perverted  con- 
ception of  sex  matters  ever  since  their  days  in  the  second- 
ary schools.  All  experience,  physiologic  and  pathologic, 
as  well  as  sociologic  and  pedagogic,  points  emphatically 
to  the  age  of  puberty  as  the  time  when  the  youth  of  both 
sexes  must  be  so  instructed  in  sex  matters  that  they  will 
have  a  perfectly  healthy  understanding  of  the  subject 
and  develop  naturally  in  the  way  of  health  and  virtue  and 
escape  vice  and  disease. 

For  the  boy,  at  least,  the  period  of  puberty  usually  is 
coincident  with  the  years  spent  in  the  high  school;  and 
it  is  under  the  influence  of  the  latter  that  the  most  im- 
portant crisis  of  his  physical  life  is  passed.  Few  teachers 
realize  the  significance  of  this  change  of  life  in  the  boy — 
about  it  centres  the  whole  boy-problem.  The  emotional 
and  nervous  strain,  the  physical  weakness,  with  the 
mental  unrest  and  lack  of  a  sense  of  proportion  that 
characterize  this  age  are  rarely  interpreted  by  the  teacher 
as  sex  phenomena,  and  still  more  rarely  met  by  sympa- 
thy and  tact  on  his  part.  Nearly  all  of  the  failures  of 
boys  in  the  high  school  or  at  home  during  this  period  can 
be  traced  to  this  cause;  and  teachers  and  parents  are  the 
ones  to  be  blamed  rather  than  the  unfortunate  boy. 

What  Shall  Be  Taught. — While  all  must  agree  upon  the 
necessity  of  some  instruction  upon  sex  matters  to  the 
boy  at  the  age  of  puberty,  the  point  which  here  chiefly 
concerns  us  is  the  nature  and  amount  of  such  teaching. 
Sex  instruction,  I  believe,  should  be  of  two  kinds;  it 
must  be  constructive,  as  well  as  negative  and  preventive. 


370  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Not  only  must  the  moral  and  physical  evils  of  vice  be 
shown,  but  the  ideal  side  and  the  higher  significance  of 
the  sex  relationship  must  be  given  equal  emphasis,  or  the 
dangers  of  a  one-sided  teaching  will  ensue.  It  is  just  as 
important  in  this  day  to  teach  the  need,  the  beauty,  and 
dignity  of  the  normal  sex  relationship  as  it  is  to  preach 
the  horrors  of  sexual  vice  and  the  venereal  diseases.  We 
may  then  outline  a  programme  for  sex  pedagogy  in  the 
high  school,  as  follows: 

A. — CONSTRUCTIVE   TEACHING 

1.  The  essential  anatomic  and  physiologic  facts  con- 
cerning the  organs  and  function  of  reproduction  should 
be  taught  to  boys  and  girls  in  separate  classes  by  properly 
qualified  men  and  women  teachers,  respectively. 

2.  Courses  in  botany  and  zoology  may  be  given  in 
mixed  classes  and  the  phenomena  of  reproduction  treated 
simply  and  naturally,  without  evasion  or  prudery.     Tact 
and  common-sense  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  should  be 
employed  in  revealing  rather  than  in  concealing. 

3.  Sex  and  the  reproduction  of  life  should  be  treated 
not  as  vile  or  evil  matters,  but  should  be  taught  as  the 
greatest  and  most  wonderful,  phenomena  of  life.     Ideals 
of  home  life,  biologic  and  sociologic,  the  significance  of 
the  family,  the  mutual  obligation  of  the  sexes,  and  the 
necessity  for  social  conventions  should  all  be  taught  as 
a  part  of  the  preparation  of  the  youth  for  good  citizen- 
ship.   History  and  literature  should  be  freely  used  to  build 
up  high  ideals  of  sex  relationships.    The  ideals  of  ultimate 
happy  marriage  and  parenthood  should  be  held  up,  and 
the  necessity  of  complete  preparation,  both  physically  and 
mentally,  for  this  should  be  carefully  instilled  into  the 
developing  minds  and  characters  of  high  school  students. 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  371 

4.  The  physiologic  significance  of  night  dreams  and 
emissions  must  be  taught  in  a  sane  way  to  the  boy.  He 
must  be  shown  that  these  are  normal,  that  they  do  not 
indicate  any  disease  or  weakness,  but  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  sign  of  his  developing  virility.  He  must  be 
taught  also  that  there  is  a  certain  periodicity  in  his  sexual 
life,  and  that  many  sensations  and  emotions  are  normal 
and  must  be  regarded  in  a  natural  way,  without  worry 
or  undue  consideration.  That  the  number  of  nightly 
emissions  varies  greatly  in  a  given  time  in  the  case  of 
perfectly  normal  and  healthy  men,  and  that  frequency  in 
itself  is  no  indication  of  what  is  normal  or  abnormal  must 
be  clearly  shown  him.  The  standard  of  physical  well- 
being,  energy,  and  the  desire  to  be  something  and  to  do 
something  are  to  be  given  him  as  criteria  of  the  normal 
course  of  his  sexual  functions.  The  importance  of  exer- 
cise, bathing,  good  and  sufficient  food,  fresh  air  and  suf- 
ficient sleep,  abstinence  from  narcotics  and  other  drugs, 
and  conservation  of  his  developing  sexual  powers  by  re- 
fraining from  masturbation  or  intercourse  are  all-im- 
portant points  in  the  personal  hygiene  that  should  con- 
stitute a  position  of  primary  importance  in  the  high  school 
curriculum. 

A  similar  line  of  teaching  adapted  to  sex  differences 
should  be  given  the  girls  by  teachers  of  their  own  sex  in 
segregated  classes.  Here  the  significance  of  the  men- 
strual function  should  be  carefully  taught  in  such  a  way 
that  the  too-prevalent  ideas  of  humiliation  and  physical 
inferiority  be  counteracted  by  the  development  of  an 
entirely  different  psychical  atmosphere  about  the  whole 
matter.  The  sacredness  of  the  function,  and  a  healthy 
attitude  toward  maternity  and  the  marriage  relation 
should  be  instilled  in  a  natural  way  into  the  minds  of  the 


372  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

young  girls  without  awakening  precocity  and  over-sexual- 
consciousness.  This  teaching  should  be  impersonal, 
without  much  dwelling  upon  the  sexual  organs  or  the 
sexual  act,  and  treated  always  in  a  biologic  way,  without 
over-sentiment  or  morbidness. 

5.  The  vice  of  self-abuse  should  likewise  be  treated 
in  a  sane  way,  according  to  the  views  of  the  best  modern 
experts  upon  this  question.     It  can  be  truthfully  said 
fhat  more  harm  has  been  done  by  warnings  against  self- 
abuse  than  was  ever  caused  directly  by  the  habit  itself. 
It  should  be  treated  of  as  an  abnormal,  unmanly,  un- 
satisfactory, and  unpleasant  habit,  that  grows  by  use  and 
uses  up  energy  and  vitality  needed  for  other  purposes. 
It  can  be  shown  that  a  boy  in  whom  the  habit  has  be- 
come a  thing  of  daily  occurrence  is  not  likely  to  be  ener- 
getic, cheerful,  vigorous,  and  pushing  in  his  studies  and 
in  other  interests,  but  is  likely  to  be  jaded,  dull,  and 
lacking  in  interest  in  life.     The  moral  injury  of  yielding 
to  any  habit  should  be  applied  here,  and  the  importance 
of  self-control  in  general  should  be  emphasized  directly 
and  indirectly.     Similar  teaching  must  be  given  to  girls 
by  teachers  of  their  own  sex. 

6.  The  old  error  that  chastity  is  incompatible  with 
health  must  be  replaced  by  the  modern  view  that  sexual 
indulgence  is  not  a  physiologic  necessity.    Boys  should  be 
taught  that  many  men  of  the  strongest  physical  and  in- 
tellectual development  have  lived  perfectly  healthy  lives 
with  complete  abstinence  in  sexual  matters.     Celibacy 
should  not  be  taught,  however,  and  the  highest  ideal  of 
life  presented  to  high  school  pupils  should  include  the 
ideal  sex  relationship  as  exemplified  in  the  duties  of 
fatherhood  and  motherhood.     The  importance  of  repro- 
duction for  the  race  must  be  taught  as  the  highest  ethical 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  373 

responsibility  laid  upon  the  individual  man  and  woman. 
Such  a  responsibility  entails  now  a  certain  degree  of 
preparation;  certain  years  for  education  and  physical 
development,  and  for  the  establishment  of  the  life  work, 
business,  or  profession  are  needed,  and  during  these 
years  from  the  age  of  puberty  up  to  the  age  of  twenty-six 
or  more,  self-control  is  necessary,  and  chaste  living  not 
only  desirable,  but  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  individ- 
ual and  the  race.  As  matters  stand  now,  young  people  in 
great  numbers  acquire  the  idea  that  sexual  looseness  is 
a  part  of  life,  and  that  every  one  is  expected  to  have  had 
some  experiences  of  this  kind.  It  is  all  explained  by 
"human  nature,"  and  that  is  said  to  be  "unchanging." 
Just  such  sophistries  as  these  must  be  counteracted  in 
the  schools,  particularly  in  the  high  schools.  Nothing 
is  more  sad  than  the  cynicism  of  the  young  man  who  is 
suffering  from  the  results  of  his  philosophy  of  life,  in  the 
acquisition  of  venereal  disease.  The  expressed  belief 
that  "all  men  do  it"  reveals  the  home  and  school  training, 
as  well  as  the  narrow  experience  of  such  young  people. 
They  have  not  learned  that  there  are  men  at  the  other 
end  of  the  human  scale  who  do  lead  clean  lives,  and 
just  as  manly,  vigorous,  and  useful  lives,  as  those  who,  un- 
der the  fatuous  self-deception  of  vicious  experience  claim 
to  know  real  life  and  the  real  world.  The  writers  and 
philosophers  who  have  preached  the  doctrines  of  "  living 
one's  own  life,"  of  "the  necessity  of  knowing  all  experi- 
ence," the  "sowing  of  wild  oats,"  and  the  necessity  for 
every  young  man's  having  his  "fling"  have  a  terrible  re- 
sponsibility upon  them  in  the  shape  of  young  lives  come 
to  wreck  through  the  practical  application  of  such 
theories.  The  day  is  past  when  any  one  can  hold  such 
views  in  the  light  of  the  revealments  of  modern  medicine 


374  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

regarding  the  results  of  the  perversion  and  misuse  of 
the  sexual  function.  When  the  harvest  of  wild  oats 
consists  chiefly  of  diseases  affecting  not  only  the  individ- 
ual directly  concerned,  but  manifesting  themselves  also 
in  innocent  wives  and  children,  upon  more  remote  de- 
scendants and  upon  the  race  as  a  whole,  then  no  one 
having  such  knowledge  can  tolerate  for  a  moment  this 
specious,  vicious  argument.  And  it  is  just  against  this 
very  thing  that  a  large  part  of  the  constructive  sex  educa- 
tion in  the  schools  must  be  directed. 

7.  Such  teaching  must  be  to  large  extent  positive.     It 
must  be  given  by  teachers  who  can  hold  the  respect  and 
confidence  of  the  young  people  under  their  charge,  and 
who  can  stimulate  the  growth  of  ideals.     Everything  that 
makes  for  character  development  and  for  the  strength- 
ening of  self-control  is  of  the  very  greatest  importance  in 
establishing  high  ideals  of  the  sex  relationship,  and  hence 
in  the  prevention  of  sexual  mistakes  and  perversions. 
Prophylaxis  may  thus  be  indirectly  obtained  without  too 
much  isolation  or  over  emphasis  of  the  sex  passion  itself. 
With  children  in  whom  the  germs  of  sympathy  and  altru- 
ism have  been  awakened,  the  development  of  a  high  ideal 
of  sex  relations  from  the  positive  side  will  not  be  difficult. 
The  broader  relations  of  the  sexes  in  their  influence  upon 
human  progress  and  the  development  of  human  ideals, 
as  well  as  the  rewards  of  a  normal  sexual  life  in  the  ful- 
filment of  family  life  can  be  presented  to  the  high  school 
student  properly;  and  certainly  are  of  greater  importance 
at  this  time  than  the  teaching  of  civics,  since  the  family- 
unit  constitutes  the  foundation  of  the  State,  and  the  prep- 
aration for  the  broader  knowledge  should  come  first. 

8.  The  foundations  for  such  positive  teaching  of  sex 
relations  must  be  laid  farther  back  than  the  high  school. 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  375 

The  child  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  unprepared  to 
the  strain  and  stress  of  puberty.  Hence  it  is  essential 
that  sex  pedagogy  be  begun  before  this  time,  whether 
in  the  home  or  in  the  school.  If  not  in  the  home,  then  it 
becomes  the  function  of  the  primary  schools.  It  is  not 
within  our  province  here  to  discuss  the  material  or  the 
methods  of  such  primary  sex  pedagogy;  but  we  may 
venture  the  belief  that  it  should  be  general  rather  than 
detailed,  and  chiefly  constructive.  As  we  are  concerned 
with  the  character  of  the  teaching  during  the  period  of 
puberty,  the  methods  of  teaching  the  material  outlined 
above  constitute  the  most  important  pedagogical  problem 
now  facing  us.  As  stated  above,  no  detailed  methods 
have  been  worked  out,  the  whole  matter  is  in  an  experi- 
mental stage,  properly  trained  teachers  are  lacking,  and 
even  satisfactory  literature  is  not  obtainable  in  any  form 
that  can  be  utilized.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  proceed 
with  caution  in  constructive  sex  pedagogy,  carefully  feel- 
ing the  way,  avoiding  the  pitfall  of  sentimentality  on  the 
one  hand  and  that  of  sexual  stimulation  on  the  other. 
The  very  newness  of  the  experiment,  and  the  danger  of 
producing  an  unfavorable  reaction  in  the  minds  of  the 
public  are  good  reasons  for  the  exercise  of  great  care  in 
the  beginning  of  such  teaching.  But  the  public  is  wait- 
ing for  such  teaching  and  will  give  its  hearty  approval 
of  attempts  made  in  the  proper  way. 

B. — PREVENTIVE    TEACHING 

i.  The  attack  upon  the  problem  from  the  stand-point 
of  preventive  medicine  has  been  developed  to  a  much 
greater  degree.  Indeed,  from  the  medical  side,  the  at- 
tempts at  sex  pedagogy  have  been  chiefly  along  this  line; 
and  the  physical  evils  of  sexual  misuse  or  perversion,  as 


376  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

manifested  in  the  venereal  diseases,  constitute  at  the  pres- 
ent time  the  chief  material  of  sex  pedagogy.  This  em- 
phasis on  consequence  has,  curiously  enough,  been  criti- 
cised by  certain  educators  who  see  the  whole  question 
from  laymen's  eyes  and  not  with  medical  understanding. 
A  good  deal  of  sentimental  twiddle-twaddle  has  been  ut- 
tered about  the  teaching  of  "venereal  pathology,"  about 
the  appeal  to  the  "fear  of  consequences,"  the  "fright- 
ening of  youth  into  virtue,"  the  "shocking  of  tender 
susceptibii.ties,"  etc.  These  same  educators  hark  back 
to  the  old  appeal  that  virtue  should  be  taught  rather 
than  the  results  of  vice;  but  centuries  of  this  appeal  on 
the  part  of  religion  have  failed  utterly  and  the  venereal 
evil  to-day  is  more  appalling  than  it  has  ever  been  at 
any  period  in  the  history  of  civilization.  The  appeal  to 
virtue  for  virtue's  sake  alone  has  not  been  successful 
hitherto,  because  such  virtue  has  not  been  shown  to  have 
any  positive  value.  It  has  remained  for  medicine  and 
sociology  to  show  that  the  spiritual  conception  of  sexual 
virtue  has  a  positive  foundation  of  the  most  tremendous 
importance  to  the  individual  and  the  race;  and  this 
foundation  is  one  of  consequences,  just  as  it  is  of  every 
other  positive  virtue.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pursue  this 
argument  farther;  in  its  modern  attitude  toward  the 
universe  the  human  mind  demands,  first  of  all,  that  it  be 
shown  the  reason.  In  the  case  of  this  great  fundamental 
human  instinct  and  passion  any  attempt  to  restrict  what 
have  previously  been  accepted  as  rights  and  privileges 
must  be  clearly  shown  to  be  based  upon  very  good  and 
sufficient  reasons.  It  is  not  a  question  of  fear  in  a  cow- 
ardly sense,  as  some  sentimentalists  would  have  it  re- 
garded, but  one  of  common-sense  recognition  of  cause 
and  effect,  precisely  the  same  attitude  that  we  should  have 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  377 

toward  small-pox,  typhoid  fever,  and  tuberculosis,  only 
more  marked  because  of  the  more  serious  and  farther- 
reaching  consequences. 

2.  I  believe  emphatically  that  the  physical  evils  of 
venereal  promiscuity  should  be  fully  taught  to  the  young 
people  of  both  sexes  at  the  age  of  puberty.     This  teach- 
ing cannot  be  done  with  full  authority  by  laymen,  but 
should  be  given  by  properly  qualified  and  reputable  physi- 
cians of  both  sexes  who  have  special  preparation  for 
such  work.     That  few  teachers  of  this  kind  exist  at  the 
present  time  is  true;    and  it  will  become  necessary  to 
develop  such.     When  they  are  not  available,  then  this 
teaching  should  be  given  into  the  hands  of  the  best  pre- 
pared laymen  available,  most  naturally  into  the  hands 
of  the  teachers  of  biology.     Indeed,  there  is  no  reason 
why  teachers  of  biology  should  not  have  included  in  their 
preparatory  work  a  medical  course  fitting  them  for  such 
teaching.     Approved  leaflets  and  books  may  help  greatly 
in  such  teaching,  and  there  is  great  need  for  good  litera- 
ture of  this  kind.     Special  teachers  may  also  be  employed 
by  the  State,  district,  or  county  to  go  from  school  to 
school  delivering  courses  of  instruction.     If  nothing  else 
can  be  secured  the  State  university  medical  school  could 
supply  lecturers  on  a  university  extension  basis.     Such 
lectures  could  well  cover  the  entire  field  of  preventive 
medicine. 

3.  The  material  for  these  lectures  should  consist  of  a 
full  exposition,  in  simple  language  adapted  to  the  age  of 
the  children,  of  venereal  pathology,  particularly  of  the 
two  diseases  gonorrhoea  and  syphilis.    The  general  nat- 
ure of  these  diseases,  the  relative  incurability  or  diffi- 
culty of  cure,  the  consequences  remaining  even  when  a 
"cure"  has  been  effected,  the  development  of  "germ- 


378  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

carriers,"  the  danger  of  apparent  cures,  the  local  and 
remote  effects  of  these  infections,  the  frequent  cause  of 
blindness  in  the  infant,  the  production  of  sterility  in  both 
sexes,  pelvic  disease  in  the  female  with  consequences  of 
severe  or  fatal  operations  or  chronic  invalidism,  the  re- 
lation of  syphilis  to  organic  lesions  of  the  internal  organs, 
insanity  and  other  nervous  affections,  the  transmission  of 
the  disease  to  the  progeny — all  this,  and  more,  should  be 
put  before  the  young  boy  who  is  reaching  the  period  of 
sexual  temptation.  Prostitution,  in  its  full  significance, 
as  requiring  the  sacrifice  of  the  lives  of  the  women  enter- 
ing it — the  full  sociologic  meaning  of  white  slavery  and 
the  part  played  in  this  frightful  tragedy  by  every  male 
who  indulges  in  promiscuous  intercourse — as  constituting 
the  source  of  all  venereal  disease,  and  as  the  fountain- 
head  of  infections  involving  the  innocent  as  well  as  the 
guilty,  should  be  explained  to  young  people  at  the  age 
of  puberty.  The  dangers  of  using  common  objects  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  these  diseases,  as  well  as  in 
the  case  of  tuberculosis  and  other  infections. 

4.  In  addition  to  the  peril  of  venereal  disease  should 
be  taught  the  degenerative  effects  of  unrestrained  lust, 
both  in  masturbation  and  sexual  intercourse.  The 
sapping  of  energy,  the  weakening  of  the  will  power  and 
the  physical  and  mental  deterioration  resulting  from  pre- 
mature or  excessive  use  of  the  function  should  be  shown 
without  exaggeration  or  overdrawn  pictures  of  the  evil 
results  of  masturbation.  The  latter  should  not  be  made 
a  greater  evil  than  promiscuous  sexual  intercourse,  as  it 
has  been  and  still  is  by  ignorant  parents  and  teachers. 
Full  warning  against  the  quacks  who  fatten  upon  the 
sexual  ignorance  of  young  boys  and  men  should  be 
given;  and  young  people  should  be  advised  to  go  to  their 


SEX  PEDAGOGY  379 

family  physician  if  they  believe  they  have  any  organic 
condition  or  defect.  The  bugbear  of  varicocele  should  be 
laid  by  anatomic  explanation. 

If  such  information  be  regarded  as  strong  meat  for 
young  people  the  situation  justifies  it.  If  it  be  properly 
given  no  normal  young  person  can  be  other  than  helped 
by  it — if  the  neurotic  ones  occasionally  develop  phobias 
and  psychoses  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  they  will 
any  way,  from  other  causes,  particularly  the  very  evils 
we  are  attacking;  and  phobias  against  these  evils  are  less 
harmful  to  society  at  large  than  the  conditions  arising 
from  the  evils  themselves. 

5.  In  the  high  schools  other  problems  offer  themselves 
bearing  more  or  less  directly  upon  the  questions  here  con- 
cerned. The  part  which  the  high  school  secret  fraternity 
plays  in  the  acquisition  of  venereal  disease  by  high  school 
students  is  in  my  experience  a  very  important  one.  I 
have  known  of  one  of  these  societies  in  which  every  young 
boy  was  found  to  have  venereal  disease.  Interscholastic 
athletics  and  the  uncontrolled  visits  of  young  boys  to 
strange  towns  or  cities  lead  inevitably,  under  our  pres- 
ent conditions,  to  alcoholic  and  sexual  indulgence  on  the 
part  of  a  certain  number  of  boys.  Greater  control  and  a 
closer  supervision  of  these  factors  is  urgently  demanded. 
The  social  features  of  the  high  school,  and  all  the  social 
and  co-operative  activities  should  be  so  guided  that  they 
will  be  potent  in  bringing  about  an  ideal  of  the  higher 
significance  of  the  sex  relationships. 

Conclusion. — In  a  very  brief  space,  and  very  inade- 
quately, I  have  endeavored  to  outline  the  problem  and 
the  chief  means  of  attack.  Since  the  latter  is  the  burn- 
ing question,  the  attempt  at  solving  this  great  educational 
problem  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 


380  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

1.  The  development  in  young  people  of  an  ideal  con- 
ception of  sex  relationship,  and  the  necessity  of  sex  part- 
nership in  all  that  stands  for  life — spiritual  and  physical, 
evolution  and  procreation — should  form  the  foundation 
of  sex  pedagogy. 

2.  Upon  this  foundation  should  be  placed  the  fullest 
teachings  of  the  sociologic  and  hygienic  aspects  of  the 
problem,  particularly  all  that  is  concerned  with  the  pre- 
vention of  disease  and  the  conservation  of  human  life, 
health,  and  happiness. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

AGRICULTURE 
C.  H.  ROBISON,  PH.D. 

STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,    UPPER   MONTCLAIR,    N.   J. 

As  a  subject  in  the  high  school  curriculum,  agricult- 
ure is  of  recent  date.  During  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century  we  find  scattered  instances  of  futile  attempts 
to  introduce  it  into  certain  academies  with  humanistic 
tendencies.  For  years  the  agriculture  taught  in  many 
land-grant  colleges  was  of  purely  secondary  grade.  Un- 
like many  other  secondary  studies,  it  came  down  from 
the  college  only  indirectly;  that  is,  it  was  made  effective 
in  the  high  schools  after  a  partial  failure  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  with  their  severe  handicap  of  the  unprepared 
condition  of  the  teachers.  When  scarcely  one  hundred 
publicly  supported  secondary  schools  had  introduced 
agriculture,  it  was  required  by  law  in  the  rural  schools 
of  twelve  States.  While  rather  indifferently  obeyed, 
these  laws  indicated  a  growing  sentiment  that  has  re- 
sulted in  the  rapid  introduction  of  agriculture  into  rural 
high  schools. 

What  Agriculture  Is.— To  those  living  by  it,  agricult- 
ure is  a  business;  to  those  practicing  it  successfully,  it 
certainly  is  an  art.  As  a  school  subject  it  might  be  called 
a  study  as  safely  as  most  branches;  whether  a  science  or 
something  else  depends  on  the  kind  and  amount  of  organ- 
ization. If  the  facts  of  agricultural  practice  are  considered 

381 


382  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

with  reference  to  underlying  principles,  and  if  from  these 
are  formulated  definite  lines  of  procedure  organized  into  a 
system,  we  may  call  the  product  a  science.  For  secondary 
school  purposes,  it  might  even  be  sufficient  to  present 
merely  the  illustrative  materials  verifying  these  principles. 
The  science  of  agriculture  is  more  than  a  unifying  organ- 
ization of  correct  agricultural  practices.  It  includes  an 
exposition  of  the  correctness  of  those  practices  in  the 
light  of  underlying  principles  drawn  from  physics,  chem- 
istry, and  biology,  just  as  the  last,  in  its  turn,  makes  large 
use  of  the  other  two. 

Agriculture  and  biology,  when  handicapped  by  lack 
of  a  broad  foundation,  must  be  presented  largely  from 
the  nature-study  view-point,  in  which  the  recurrence  of 
the  seasons  governs,  to  no  small  degree,  the  selection  of 
topics  and  their  subsequent  organization.  Agriculture 
may  then  be  designated  rather  as  an  introduction  to 
science  than  as  a  science  itself.  This  view  will  be  elabo- 
rated later. 

Aims. — Like  any  other  art,  that  of  farming  requires 
much  practice.  Many  details  may  be  repeated  in  close 
succession.  The  final  results  of  many  of  the  operations, 
however,  cannot  be  judged  until  all  opportunity  for  cor- 
recting bad  practices  has  passed.  The  experience  gained 
must  be  applied  to  the  problems  of  another  growing  sea- 
son. Quite  evidently,  then,  it  is  outside  the  province  of 
the  general  high  school  to  give  any  but  the  most  meagre 
training  in  the  art  of  farming.  In  short,  it  cannot  be 
expected  to  function  as  a  trade  school.  This  is  entirely 
aside  from  the  proposition  to  create  a  congeries  of  trade 
schools  associated  with  the  non-special  high  school,  on 
the  same  campus  and  under  the  same  administration. 
Indeed,  many  self-styled  agricultural  schools,  of  both 


AGRICULTURE  383 

secondary  and  higher  rank,  give  no  instruction,  and  often 
no  practice,  in  many  common  and  fundamental  farm 
operations.  They  frankly  state  that  a  boy  not  reared 
on  a  farm  cannot  profitably  pursue  most  of  their  work. 
Until  special  secondary  schools  of  agriculture  do  this 
easily,  the  general  high  school  should  not  be  expected  to 
do  so.  In  spite  of  many  contrary  opinions,  it  might  seem 
as  reasonable,  however,  for  the  general  school  to  turn  out 
gardeners  as  stenographers.  The  "  multiple  high  school," 
if  we  may  coin  the  term,  might  properly  do  both. 

While  not  giving  much  practice  in  the  agricultural 
arts,  the  study  in  the  general  high  school  may  reasonably 
hope  to  give  the  student  an  understanding  of  the  simpler 
processes  and  laws  of  nature  involved  in  raising  crops  and 
animals.  It  may  bring  him  to  realize  that  a  trained  mind 
is  necessary  to  the  successful  management  of  a  farm. 
It  certainly  should  furnish  him  with  a  working  vocabu- 
lary with  which  to  read  intelligently  agricultural  jour- 
nals and  official  bulletins.  The  materials  used  will  have 
great  informational  value  whether  the  aim  be  consciously 
utilitarian  or  not. 

If  we  accept  the  view  that  to  be  cultural  is  to  be  use- 
less, we  can  hardly  imagine  agriculture  having  a  cultural 
value.  To  the  extent  that  it  makes  the  otherwise  dead 
science  bristle  with  reality,  gives  an  intelligent  view  of 
the  foundation  of  our  national  prosperity,  creates  a 
thoughtful  attitude  toward  the  future  calling  of  the  stu- 
dents, to  that  extent  all  must  admit  the  study  to  be  cult- 
ural in  the  highest  degree.  The  study  of  agricultural 
economics  in  most  elementary  fashion  may  suggest  a 
better  sense  of  proportion  between  capital  and  labor, 
employer  and  employed,  work  and  leisure. 

The  migration  from  farm  to  factory  is  probably  too 


384  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

deeply  rooted  in  social  and  economic  conditions  to  be 
affected  by  efforts  of  the  schools  as  much  as  we  might 
hope. 

Disciplinary  Values. — The  same  disciplinary  values 
may  be  claimed  for  agriculture  as  for  any  other  high 
school  study  using  the  materials  of  science  with  the  same 
degree  of  organization,  when  taught  by  teachers  as  com- 
petent as  those  in  charge  of  the  standard  sciences.  This 
is  entirely  aside  from  the  cloud  under  which  rests  the 
whole  theory  of  formal  discipline.  For  if  there  is  virtue 
in  observation,  in  individual  laboratory  work,  in  keeping 
careful  and  neat  records,  in  the  motor  activities  involved, 
agriculture  offers  the  same  possibilities  as  any  science, 
although  they  have  not  been  utilized  to  anything  like 
their  full  extent.  It  affords  as  much  use  as  they  do  for 
induction  and  verification.  In  short,  it  should  be  as 
useful,  if  properly  taught,  as  any  subject  in  the  curric- 
ulum for  giving  training  in  the  scientific  method.  But 
learning  to  garden  by  imitation  or  by  rule  certainly  will 
not  accomplish  this  desirable  result.  Reasoning  ability 
not  due  to  heredity  results  largely  from  repeatedly  form- 
ing and  correcting  judgments.  Casual  examination  of 
the  materials  of  high  school  agriculture  show  that  they 
offer  abundant  opportunities  for  doing  this.  The  prob- 
lem is  chiefly  one  of  efficient  instruction. 

The  introduction  of  agriculture  is  an  effort  to  relate 
school  work  more  directly  to  the  interests  of  rural  com- 
munities, which  usually  show  greater  homogeneity,  both 
racial  and  vocational,  than  those  supporting  city  high 
schools.  The  presence  of  one  interest  overshadowing 
all  others  is  an  advantage,  but  the  great  complexity  of 
this  one  is  something  of  a  disadvantage  in  arranging  a 
curriculum. 


AGRICULTURE  385 

Agriculture  finds  its  justification  in  the  doctrine  of  in- 
terest in  a  way  unequalled  by  most  studies.  This  is 
true  whether  it  be  the  means  merely  of  "humanizing" 
the  standard  sciences,  whether  it  be  pursued  in  a  super- 
ficial way,  or  whether  studied  in  detail.  Even  in  the 
latter  event,  we  can  hardly  expect  this  one  subject  to  be 
purely  vocational  while  the  general  spirit  of  the  high 
school  is  so  decidedly  the  reverse. 

Relation  to  Grade  Work. — The  pupils  in  about  one- 
half  of  the  high  schools  with  courses  in  agriculture  have 
had  some  nature-study  or  elementary  agriculture  in  the 
grades.  Just  in  so  far  as  the  nature-study  idea,  that  of 
observational  study  of  common  natural  objects  of  inter- 
est, is  preserved,  to  that  degree  will  the  work  of  the  grade 
be  of  direct  benefit  to  high  school  courses  in  agriculture. 
It  will  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  inquiry,  create  a  respect 
for  the  pupils'  own  observations,  and  bring  together  some 
of  the  raw  materials  for  later  generalizations  in  the  high 
school  studies  using  the  more  stnctly  "scientific"  method 
of  thought.  To  the  degree,  however,  that  the  seventh 
or  eighth  grade  attempts  to  make  a  survey  of  the  entire 
field,  to  become  informational  rather  than  observational, 
it  will  be  likely  to  overlap  or  encroach  on  the  province  and 
materials  of  the  first-year  high  school  study,  so  that  the 
latter  runs  the  risk  of  seeming  insipid.  When  preceded 
by  suitable  work  in  the  grades,  an  elementary  course  in 
the  high  school  has  a  peculiar  field  discussed  later.  The 
more  technical  or  specialized  divisions  of  a  three  or 
four  year  course  in  agriculture  may  profitably  use  a  re- 
view of  earlier  observations  to  serve  as  an  approach  to 
the  subjects  of  serious  investigation. 

Present  Status. — The  number  of  public  high  schools, 
both  general  and  special,  has  increased  from  seventy-five 


386  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

or  eighty  in  the  school  year  1906-1907  to  approximately 
one  thousand  in  1909-1910.  While  the  annual  rate  of 
increase  has  fallen  from  300  per  cent  to  less  than  100  per 
cent,  it  is  still  so  large  that  figures  given  here  will  be  out 
of  date  before  reaching  the  public.  Considerably  more 
schools  have  agriculture  for  part  of  a  year,  a  third  or  a 
half,  than  have  it  extending  throughout  the  year.  Even 
in  this  case,  a  "full"  year's  work  is  as  likely  to  mean 
thirty-two  or  thirty-four  weeks  as  it  is  to  mean  thirty- 
six,  thirty-eight,  or  forty  weeks.  These  estimates  are 
based  on  reports  from  one  hundred  and  seventy-one 
schools  with  courses  one  year  or  less  in  length.  Of  the 
entire  number,  eighty-two  reported  an  eighteen-week 
term.  In  1910-11,  nearly  seventy-five  schools  received 
State  aid  for  agriculture,  about  half  of  them  offering 
general  high  school  work  as  well,  and  half  being  more 
properly  classed  as  special  or  agricultural  trade  schools 
supported  entirely  by  the  State.  Although  the  number 
of  technical  schools  had  not  increased  materially  by 
1912,  the  State-aided  high  schools  with  agricultural  de- 
partments numbered  about  one  hundred  and  fifty,  while 
another  hundred  maintained  agricultural  courses  of  two 
or  more  years  without  State  assistance.  Correspond- 
ingly recent  data  as  to  the  number  of  high  schools  offer- 
ing courses  of  one  year  or  less  are  not  available  as  this 
chapter  goes  to  press. 

Among  the  States  making  provision  (1910)  for  agri- 
cultural education,  apart  from  agricultural  colleges  and 
industrial  schools  for  negroes,  may  be  mentioned  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  California,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Louisiana, 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missis- 
sippi, Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Oklahoma, 
Pennsylvania,  Texas,  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin.  Owing 


AGRICULTURE  387 

to  the  indefinite  and  varying  use  of  the  term  "agricul- 
tural high  school,"  both  legally  and  in  popular  usage, 
it  is  impossible  in  a  mere  list  to  differentiate  the  two 
classes  mentioned  above.  No  high  school  in  New  Jer- 
sey, and,  perhaps,  in  other  States,  has  taken  advantage 
of  this  financial  inducement. 

Many  other  high  schools  maintain  pretentious  indus- 
trial departments  without  special  State  aid.  In  the 
States  having  the  largest  number  of  high  schools  with 
agriculture  in  but  one  year,  namely,  in  Missouri,  Ne- 
braska, and  Ohio,  the  work  is  supported  only  by  local 
funds. 

An  effort  has  been  made  in  the  last  three  sessions  of 
Congress  to  lend  Federal  aid  in  establishing  agricultural 
high  schools,  extending  the  present  policy  regarding  the 
colleges.  In  its  latest  form  the  so-called  "Davis  Bill" 
proposes  to  extend  this  aid  under  certain  conditions  to 
State  normal  schools  and  to  general  high  schools  for 
the  maintenance  of  departments  of  agriculture,  mechanic 
arts,  and  home  economics. 

While  as  high  as  six  hundred  minutes  per  week  have 
been  reported  for  a  single  class  in  agriculture,  five  periods 
of  forty  minutes  each  is  the  amount  of  time  spent  by  the 
classes  in  over  half  of  the  schools.  While  this  indicates 
that  little  extra  time  is  regularly  appointed  for  laboratory 
or  garden  exercises,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
same  schools  give  little,  if  any,  such  extra  time  to  other 
sciences. 

College  Entrance. — Agriculture  is  probably  as  well 
taught  in  the  smaller  high  schools  as  are  the  sciences 
generally — also  as  badly.  Any  science  teacher  whose 
work  is  acceptable  to  colleges  using  the  accrediting  sys- 
tem will  probably  teach  agriculture  to  their  satisfaction, 


388  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

though  often  not  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  community. 
Where  very  few  universities  and  colleges  were  willing 
to  accept  agriculture  as  late  as  1908,  we  find  two  years 
later  that  between  sixty  and  seventy  have  arranged  to 
give  entrance  credit  for  the  subject  or  are  willing  to  do  so 
if  it  is  offered.  In  some  State  universities  it  is  accepted 
only  by  the  colleges  of  agriculture  and  of  education,  while 
in  others  it  is  accepted  by  the  college  of  arts  and  sciences 
as  well.  At  present  the  attitude  of  the  colleges  is  more 
liberal  than  the  quality  of  instruction  in  agriculture  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  schools  would  seem  to  justify. 
There  is  scarcely  any  disposition  to  accept  it  for  more 
than  a  half-unit  or  one  unit  of  credit.  To  quote  from 
the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Encouraging  College 
Credit  in  High  School  Agriculture:1 

"In  a  condensed  form,  the  following  definition  of  a 
unit  and  of  a  half-unit  seems  to  be  acceptable  to  most 
institutions: 

"  One-half  Unit. — One-half  year  given  to  the  study  of 
soils  and  plants  and  their  relation  to  each  other.  There 
shall  be  sufficient  experimental  work  to  accompany  the 
subjects  discussed. 

"  One  Unit. — One  full  year  shall  be  given  to  the  study 
of  soils,  plants,  insects,  and  farm  animals.  There  shall 
be  sufficient  experimental  and  demonstration  work  to  be 
equivalent  to  one  full  year  of  laboratory  work." 

Using  the  above  as  a  working  definition  of  a  unit  and 
of  a  half-unit,  a  high  school  may  not  reasonably  expect 
any  credit  for  a  course  of  eighteen  weeks  of  only  two 
hundred  minutes  a  week.  A  year  of  this  amount  of 
work  each  week  would  hardly  be  more  than  the  equiva- 
lent of  a  half-unit,  and  would,  if  including  all  the  full- 

1  National  Education  Association,  "Proceedings  and  Addresses,"  1910. 


AGRICULTURE  389 

unit  topics,  be  open  to  the  objection  of  having  the  time 
scattered  over  too  many  topics.  Certain  universities, 
notably  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  permit  a  combi- 
nation of  agriculture  with  botany  to  be  offered  as  one 
unit. 

None  of  the  ninety-four  college  officials  replying  to 
the  inquiries  sent  out  by  the  committee  questioned  the 
informational  or  disciplinary  value  of  the  study. 

One-Year  Agriculture. — In  view  of  the  foregoing  facts, 
we  may  well  inquire  into  the  proper  function  of  a  short 
course  in  agriculture  taught  in  the  first  or  second  year. 
It  cannot  compete  with  or  build  upon  the  physical  sciences 
as  at  present  taught.  It  will  probably  parallel  or  follow 
botany  and  physical  geography.  While  at  present  agri- 
culture exists  too  much  apart  from  either  study,  widely 
different  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to  its  relations 
to  them:  one  pointing  to  close  correlation,  the  other  to 
the  substitution  of  a  year's  work  in  agriculture  for  the 
h,alf  year's  work  each  in  botany  and  physical  geography 
so  commonly  given  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  rural  high 
school.  For  high  school  agriculture  texts  already  give 
extensive  treatment  of  topics  belonging  to  these  studies. 

Any  science  given  in  the  first  year  naturally  functions 
somewhat  as  an  "elementary"  or  "introductory"  sci- 
ence, especially  if  attempting  also  to  supply  desirable 
facts  from  other  underlying  sciences.  An  established 
science  has  a  thread  of  continuity  so  painfully  lacking  in 
the  various  proposed  courses  in  "elementary  science." 
These  excel  in  the  selection  of  topics  closely  related  to 
human  affairs  and  in  including  none  merely  for  the  sake 
of  symmetry  or  logical  development,  though  commonly 
neglecting  biological  phenomena.  The  proponents  of 
agriculture  claim  that  the  standard  sciences  as  presented 


390  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to-day  contain  too  much  matter  unrelated  to  actual  life, 
and  that  no  one  has  enough  points  of  contact  with  life 
to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  science  at  large. 

Agriculture  promises  much  as  an  introduction  to  the 
standard  sciences  and  as  an  orderly  vehicle  for  almost 
all  desirable  scientific  topics,  one  that  has  a  very  evident 
relation  to  an  environment  not  distinctly  urban,  and  one 
that  may  seem  logical  to  the  adolescent  mind.  The  im- 
portant point,  after  all,  is  not  conformity  to  a  scheme  that 
is  logical  only  from  the  adult  point  of  view.  Agriculture 
possesses  a  thread  of  continuity  most  apparent  on  the 
economic  side,  and  its  materials  are  as  well  organized, 
to  say  the  least,  as  are  those  of  the  tentative  courses  in 
"elementary  science."  It  might  better  be  considered  as  a 
practical  and  humanistic  "introduction"  to  science  than 
as  an  "elementary  science." 

The  Longer  Course. — An  agricultural  high  school,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  American  Association  of  Agricultural 
Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  should  require  all  stu- 
dents to  spend  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  entire  time  on 
agriculture  (or  home  economics,  for  girls)  and  should 
make  definite  provision  for  practice  in  farm  operations. 
Many  agricultural  secondary  schools  require  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  the  student's  time.  A  well-developed 
optional  course  will  approach  this  standard  with  the 
possible  exceptions  of  some  general  or  introductory  work 
in  science  in  the  first  year  and  less  effort  at  actual  farm 
operations. 

Its  Differentiation. — The  relative  positions  of  the  differ- 
ent divisions  of  the  general  course  in  agriculture  is  one  of 
the  first  administrative  questions  to  arise.  We  have  no 
precedent  to  guide,  and  present  usage  shows  scarcely  any 
notable  agreement.  Even  the  names  of  the  divisions 


AGRICULTURE  391 

show  puzzling  confusion.1  For  instance,  the  tendency 
in  practice  is  to  arrange  a  compact  course  called  "  animal 
husbandry,"  including  all  consideration  of  farm  animals, 
and  usually  given  in  the  same  year,  preferably  the  third. 
The  recommended  courses  tend  somewhat  to  break  this 
up  into  a  multiplicity  of  part-unit  studies  to  be  given  in 
different  years,  as  judging  and  breeds  of  stock,  to  be 
taught  early  in  the  course,  and  feeding  and  breeding  of 
stock,  to  be  studied  in  the  fourth  year,  with  dairying 
somewhere  in  between.  The  study  of  plants  usually 
occurs  in  practice  during  the  second  year,  whether  la- 
belled agronomy,  crops,  horticulture;  or  else  in  the  first 
year,  when  included  in  that  as  yet  undefined  thing,  agri- 
cultural botany.  The  proposed  courses  of  study  agree 
mainly  in  placing  this  "new"  botany  in  the  first  year. 
They  also  further  break  up  the  plant  work  into  forestry, 
gardening,  plant  propagation,  plant  breeding,  seed  judg- 
ing, and  plant  diseases.  While  any  one  tentative  course 
may  plan  these  elements  to  come  mostly  within  some  two 
years  of  the  curriculum,  the  joint  effect  of  the  recom- 
mendations is  not  to  furnish  any  clue  to  their  proper 
place.  In  addition  to  the  agreement  as  to  the  position 
of  agricultural  botany,  both  sets  of  courses  agree  in  plac- 
ing farm  management  in  the  fourth  year.  The  theoreti- 
cal courses  place  here  also  the  isolated  topics,  feeding  and 
poultry. 

Correlation. — An  important  factor  in  placing  the  agri- 
cultural topics  is  their  proximity  to  the  related  natural 

1  These  remarks  are  based  on  a  comparison  of  the  curricula  of  seven 
widely  separated  high  schools  which  have  longest  had  in  operation  agri- 
cultural courses  of  three  or  four  years,  and  of  seven  tentative  courses, 
two  recommended  by  State  departments  of  education,  three  by  State 
university  officers,  and  two  by  officials  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 


392  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

sciences.  A  tendency  to  place  soil  study  in  the  first  year 
might  be  ascribed  to  the  usual  occurrence  of  physical 
geography  at  that  time,  or,  in  the  third  or  fourth  year,  to 
the  presence  of  physics  or  chemistry.  Likewise  with  dai- 
rying, whose  manufacturing  processes  are  largely  chem- 
ical. A  justification  for  separating  seed  and  stock  judg- 
ing and  breeds,  apart  from  studies  involving  heredity, 
chemistry,  and  physiology,  may  well  be  that  the  former  are 
largely  matters  of  observation  rather  than  matters  depen- 
dent upon  principles  learned  in  the  high  school  sciences. 
-Correlation  is  a  matter  of  administration  and  teaching 
method.  It  should  enable  the  present  sciences  to  find  a 
social  expression  in  the  agriculture  taught.  The  latter 
should  be  close  enough  in  time  to  be  of  real  value  in 
illustrating  scientific  principles.  Likewise,  the  agricult- 
ural topic  should  follow  so  closely  after  the  science  as  to 
render  unnecessary  a  review,  practically,  of  the  scientific 
matter.  Thus  may  be  justified  the  splitting  up  of  the 
agricultural  subjects  referred  to  above.  Another  alter- 
native is  the  elimination  of  science,  as  such.  A  notable 
example  is  furnished  by  botany.  Not  a  few  high  schools 
have  substituted  a  year  course  in  agriculture  for  botany. 
The  course  in  agronomy,  planned  by  the  Committee  of 
Instruction  in  Agriculture  of  the  Association  of  American 
Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  with  a 
few  additions,  would  include  about  all  the  botany  a  rural 
high  school  could  profitably  teach.  Certain  recent  agri- 
cultural texts  include  much  plant  physiology  and  not  a 
little  morphology,  the  botanical  topics  generally  ignored 
being  flowerless  plants,  except  bacteria,  and  identifica- 
tion by  analysis. 

Texts. — Until  1906  only  one  text  of  high  school  grade 
had  appeared.     Although  three  others  were  published 


AGRICULTURE  393 

during  the  next  two  years,  not  until  1909  did  a  text  ap- 
pear written  for  use  in  the  upper  years  of  the  high 
school.  Many  texts  used  by  agricultural  colleges  have 
been  found  very  usable  in  extensive  secondary  courses. 
The  present  need  seems  to  be  for  a  three  or  four  book 
series,  with  topics  and  treatment  graded  for  as  many 
years,  or  for  a  series  of  booklets  or  teaching  monographs 
on  the  various  subdivisions  of  agriculture.  This  need 
is  being  met,  in  part,  by  the  reports  being  issued  by  the 
committee  just  mentioned. 

Apparatus. — The  equipment  problem  in  agriculture  is 
really  little  different  from  that  in  any  science  work,  for 
some  work  in  any  science  can  be  done  with  home-found 
materials,  and  is  entitled  to  the  same  consideration  as 
agriculture  taught  by  the  same  means.  In  all  cases  it  is 
largely  a  matter  of  ideals,  arising  from  within  or  imposed 
from  without.  Much  apparatus  already  bought  may  be 
shared  with  the  agricultural  department,  notably  com- 
pound microscopes,  Bunsen  burners  or  gasolene  torches, 
balances,  ringstands,  reagents,  and  much  glass-ware. 
If  work  of  scientific  dignity  would  be  done,  some  appa- 
ratus peculiar  to  agriculture  must  be  purchased,  such  as 
milk-testers  and  grafting,  spraying,  and  gardening  tools. 
A  basement  room  will  be  found  desirable  for  much  of 
the  work  involving  dirt  and  litter.  The  room  provided 
for  biology,  chemistry,  and  physics  will  suffice  for  most  of 
the  other  work  if  space  is  at  a  premium. 

Time. — "Lack  of  time"  has  almost  equalled  "lack  of 
equipment"  in  numerous  opinions  about  obstacles  to 
the  introduction  and  successful  teaching  of  agriculture. 
However,  a  community  that  favors  its  introduction  would 
doubtless  sanction  a  sacrifice  of  time  by  some  other  study 
farther  removed  from  the  interests  of  its  members.  If 


394  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

agriculture  cannot  survive  in  the  struggle  for  time  on  the 
school  programme  it  must  go  down.  More  valid  are  the 
complaints  regarding  lack  of  time  for  field  trips  requir- 
ing more  than  single  recitation  periods.  Instances  can 
be  cited,  however,  of  principals  taking  an  entire  afternoon 
for  trips  that  seemed  profitable.  Owners  have  gladly 
brought  stock  before  the  school  and  implements  have 
been  assembled  in  the  building;  but  methods  of  farm  man- 
agement, as  shown  by  the  standing  crops,  can  only  be  stud- 
ied on  the  ground.  Experiment  stations  conducted  by 
the  State  close  to  the  school  have  partly  overcome  this 
difficulty  as  well  as  that  of  managing  a  school  demonstra- 
tion plot.  The  idea  of  doing  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  is 
here  lacking  and  must  be  provided  for  otherwise. 

Lack  of  time,  both  in  the  schedule  and  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  may  be  remedied  by  a  device  too  little  used, 
that  of  having  students  of  two  successive  years  join  in 
the  same  study,  which  alternates  with  another  study  the 
next  year. 

Teachers. — One  of  the  chief  obstacles  is  that  of  the 
teacher.  The  one-year  course  devolves  upon  the  science 
teacher  or  the  superintendent.  The  former  is  often  un- 
sympathetic, while  the  latter  often  lacks  scientific  train- 
ing. The  best  preparation  we  can  reasonably  expect, 
at  present,  is  a  good  training  in  college  science,  supple- 
mented by  summer  school  courses  in  agriculture,  now 
offered  in  nearly  every  State.  For  the  more  pretentious 
courses  an  agricultural  college  training  is  almost  a  neces- 
sity, and  some  professional  training  is  highly  desirable. 
The  graduate  in  agriculture,  like  the  graduate  in  engi- 
neering, can  command  a  better  salary  than  school  boards 
have  yet  been  persuaded  to  pay.  The  supply  has  been 
so  nearly  absorbed  by  the  demands  of  national  and  State 


AGRICULTURE  395 

agricultural  departments  and  by  the  colleges  themselves, 
and  now  by  the  many  new  special  schools  of  agriculture, 
that  general  high  schools  are  seldom  able  to  enter  the 
competition.  For  several  years  the  salaries  of  agricult- 
ural college  graduates  accepting  positions  of  all  kinds 
have  shown  a  strong  central  tendency  slightly  below  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  the  first  year  out  of  college. 
It  must  also  be  considered  that  positions  with  the  govern- 
ment, the  college,  and  with  dealers  in  agricultural  sup- 
plies, all  offer  so  much  more  in  the  way  of  promotion, 
travel,  tenure,  and  independence,  that  the  high  school 
must  offer  stronger  inducements  than  at  present  until  the 
supply  overtakes  the  demand. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 

SELBY  A.  MORAN,  B.L. 

TEACHER   Of   COMMERCIAL   SUBJECTS,    ANN   ARBOR,    MICHIGAN 

Introductory  Statement. — The  growth  of  commercial 
education  in  this  country  during  recent  years  has  been 
phenomenal.  Almost  before  schoolmen  realized  it,  the 
commercial  department  became  a  permanent  part  of 
secondary  education.  How  can  we  account  for  these 
new  conditions  which  have  come  upon  us  so  suddenly? 
The  explanation  seems  quite  simple.  It  is  merely  the 
culmination  of  a  feeling  which  has  been  developing  for 
a  long  time.  Schoolmen  have  been  unable  to  resist  the 
growing  opposition  on  the  part  of  business  men  who  be- 
lieved that  our  high  schools  were  not  giving  the  kind  of 
training  needed  by  the  large  majority  of  pupils  who  did 
not  care  to  go  to  college.  This  feeling  gradually  grew 
into  a  determined  spirit  of  antagonism  and  caused  people 
boldly  to  demand  that  the  high  school  train  such  pupils 
to  do  well  some  specific,  practical  thing.  Something  tan- 
gible was  wanted,  something  that  would  fit  the  boy  or  girl 
to  render  some  service  that  the  world  needed.  If  this 
could  be  done  and  at  the  same  time  give  the  pupils 
a  training  which  would  make  possible  a  larger  and  more 
comprehensive  life,  so  much  the  better.  The  advocates 
of  commercial  training  seized  the  opportunity  afforded 
by  the  situation  to  press  the  claim  that  the  business  course 
was  the  one  that  would  best  meet  these  demands.  They 

396 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  397 

also  claimed  that  commercial  studies  would  appeal  more 
strongly  to  young  people  of  high  school  age  than  the 
general  culture  course  and  thus  keep  them  in  school  for 
a  longer  time.  So  strong  did  the  demand  become  that 
schoolmen  gradually  yielded,  often  against  their  judg- 
ment, and  introduced  business  courses.  The  movement 
is  gradually  overcoming  every  kind  of  opposition  and 
is  receiving  the  most  hearty  approval  of  the  public. 
Already  it  has  won  to  its  support  many  schoolmen  who 
previously  were  strongly  opposed  to  it. 

The  marked  success  of  the  course  from  both  the  edu- 
cational and  practical  stand-points  seems  to  prove  the 
soundness  of  the  position  taken.  That  it  has  attained 
such  success  while  passing  through  the  experimental 
stage  and  while  meeting  the  most  bitter  opposition,  seems 
really  remarkable  and  adds  strength  to  the  belief  that  the 
course  possesses  in  the  fullest  degree  the  merit  claimed 
for  it.  When  the  business  course  is  more  thoroughly  de- 
veloped, when  better  methods  of  teaching  these  branches 
are  devised,  and  more  liberally  educated  teachers  engage 
in  this  work,  still  more  satisfactory  results  may  be  ex- 
pected. It  will,  however,  take  time  to  reach  the  high 
standard  to  which  the  leading  advocates  of  business  edu- 
cation aspire. 

Aims  of  Commercial  Education. — The  ideal  high  school 
commercial  course  has  four  distinct  aims: 

First. — To  offer  a  practical  training  that  will  induce  a 
larger  number  of  high  school  pupils  to  remain  in  school 
for  a  longer  period. 

Second. — To  equip  young  people  as  thoroughly  as  pos- 
sible to  engage  in  business  affairs. 

Third. — To  make  the  course  broad  enough  that  the 
student,  after  completing  it,  may  be  able  to  stand  upon 


398  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  same  plane,  intellectually  and  socially,  as  those  witfc 
scientific  or  classical  training. 

Fourth. — To  have  a  sufficiently  broad  course  and  to 
teach  the  subject  in  such  a  thorough  way  that,  should  the 
student  later  elect  to  take  a  college  course,  he  will  have 
gained  the  necessary  information  and  developed  sufficient 
mental  strength  to  do  as  efficient  college  work  in  his  spe- 
cial field  as  students  can  do  in  other  courses. 

A  Practical  Illustration. — In  many  of  our  better  high 
schools  these  aims  are  to  a  large  degree  being  realized. 
The  commercial  course  in  the  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan, 
High  School,1  for  example,  aims  to  produce  more  than 
mere  stenographers,  book-keepers,  or  office  helpers.  Its 
ideal  is  to  train  young  people  to  think;  to  prepare  them 
to  take  bigger  and  broader  views  of  the  great  commercial 
problems  with  which  later  they  must  deal.  Thus  trained, 
they  are  able,  when  they  enter  commercial  life  as  account- 
ants, private  secretaries,  or  in  any  other  capacity,  to 
make  the  most  of  the  opportunities  which  come  to  them. 
This  is  possible  because  they  are  able  to  understand  and 
analyze  the  principles  underlying  the  conduct  of  commer- 
cial affairs  and  utilize  the  results  to  the  best  advantage. 
If,  instead  of  going  directly  into  business  life,  they  wish 
to  continue  their  education  in  college  or  university,  they 
have  the  information  and  training  necessary  to  enable 
them  to  carry  on  college  work  successfully.  This  becomes 
possible  because  the  work  in  book-keeping  and  commer- 
cial arithmetic,  for  example,  is  handled  the  same  as  are 
courses  in  mathematics,  which  in  reality  they  are,  though 
in  a  more  concrete  and  applied  form.  The  course  in 
commercial  correspondence,  or  business  English,  as  it  is 

1 1  speak  of  the  course  in  this  particular  school  because  I  am  thor 
oughly  familiar  with  it. 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  399 

frequently  called,  is  treated  as  a  study  of  applied  English ; 
and  just  as  high  ideals  are  aimed  at  and  just  as  thor- 
ough work  is  done  as  in  courses  I,  II,  III,  or  IV  in  the 
regular  English  department.  The  training  in  commercial 
geography,  which  is  in  large  part  industrial  history,  and 
thus  really  a  study  of  history,  is  equal,  from  both  the  cult- 
ural and  disciplinary  points  of  view,  to  that  of  any  course 
offered  in  the  regular  history  department.  The  work  in 
stenography,  which  is  in  fact  a  language  study,  though 
not  generally  recognized  as  such,  is  in  many  important 
respects  quite  as  exacting  and  effective  from  the  stand- 
point of  mental  training  as  the  classics  or  modern  lan- 
guages. I  am  aware  that  this  claim  will  be  vigorously 
disputed  by  most  advocates  of  classical  training.  I  have 
found,  however,  that,  almost  without  exception,  it  is  fully 
indorsed  by  every  thorough  student  of  the  classics  who 
has  made  an  equally  thorough  study  of  the  science  of 
stenography.  All  the  other  commercial  courses  in  this 
school  are  handled  in  a  similar  manner. 

Character  and  Success  of  Commercial  Education. — An 
equally  high  grade  of  work  is  being  done  in  many  of  the 
high  schools  throughout  the  country.  I  believe,  there- 
fore, that  it  can  justly  be  claimed  that  in  our  best  schools, 
at  least,  we  are  realizing  the  ideal  set  by  DeGarmo,  of 
Cornell  University,  who  said :  "  If  he  has  equally  efficient 
teachers  and  is  supplied  with  equally  good  facilities,  the 
student  of  the  commercial  course  is  not  inferior  to  his 
brother  in  the  arts  course  in  the  range  of  his  education, 
in  the  quality  of  his  discipline,  in  the  dignity  of  his 
work  or  the  worthiness  of  his  destination."  Such  work 
has,  in  a  large  measure,  overcome  the  opposition  to  busi- 
ness education  which  formerly  was  so  bitterly  waged 
against  it  by  many  of  our  leading  schoolmen.  It  has 


400  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

also  won  to  the  support  of  the  high  school  the  sympathy 
of  our  big,  broad-minded  business  men  of  the  type  of 
John  Wanamaker,  Andrew  Carnegie,  and  Marshall  Field, 
a  sympathy  and  touch  which  before  business  education 
was  introduced  was  almost  entirely  lacking.  It  has  come 
to  be  almost  universally  conceded  that  it  is  and  ever 
should  be  the  business  of  our  schools  not  only  to 
keep  in  the  closest  possible  touch  with  the  world  of  busi- 
ness, but  also  to  qualify  their  pupils  to  successfully  per- 
form their  part  in  it.  The  commercial  course  has  been 
the  one  thing  needed  to  supply  this  heretofore  missing 
link  between  our  schools  and  the  business  world. 

Business  education  in  the  high  school  proved  so  suc- 
cessful that  there  soon  arose  a  demand  that  our  colleges 
and  universities  offer  advanced  courses  along  commercial 
lines.  As  a  result,  all  of  our  leading  schools  are  offering 
such  courses,  some,  like  Harvard  University,  offering  a 
splendid  graduate  course  in  business.  The  constantly 
increasing  number  of  students  enrolling  for  such  advanced 
courses  will  soon  silence  the  complaint  voiced  by  the  late 
Marshall  Field  that  "The  commercial  world  is  starving 
for  high-class  material." 

Subjects  in  the  Course. — What  subjects  should  be  in- 
cluded in  a  high  school  commercial  course  and  how  much 
time  should  be  devoted  to  each  is,  and  always  will  be,  a 
debatable  question.  Probably  the  most  carefully  pre- 
pared material  on  this  feature  of  commercial  education  in 
secondary  schools  may  be  found  in  the  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Nine  of  the  National  Education  Association1 
and  the  papers  discussing  it  by  James  J.  Sheppard,  prin- 
cipal of  the  New  York  High  School  of  Commerce;  Ber- 

1  "Professional  Education  in  the  United  States,"  Bulletin  No.  23,  series 
K,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Albany. 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  401 

trand  DeR.  Parker,  principal  of  the  Rockford,  Illinois, 
High  School,  and  J.  Remson  Bishop,  principal  of  the 
Walnut  Hills  High  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.1 

The  purely  commercial  subjects  suggested  in  the  re- 
port of  the  Committee  of  Nine  are  practically  as  follows : 
Commercial  law,  civil  government,  political  economy, 
book-keeping,  accounting,  commercial  arithmetic,  com- 
mercial geography,  industrial  history,  commercial  cor- 
respondence, penmanship,  stenography,  and  typewriting. 

To  these,  I  believe,  transportation,  advertising,  sales- 
manship, and  ethics  should  be  added.  The  first  three 
are  subjects  with  which  every  business  man  must  deal, 
since  upon  the  proper  handling  of  these  features  of  his 
business,  much  of  his  material  success  will  depend.  The 
subject  of  ethics  is  one  of  special  importance  in  the  busi- 
ness world  of  to-day.  In  this  age  of  immense  trusts  and 
corporate  greed,  it  is  particularly  needful  that  the  schools 
do  their  full  duty  in  instilling  proper  ideals  of  justice  and 
integrity  and  in  developing  in  their  pupils  a  due  regard 
for  the  rights  of  others. 

To  the  purely  business  subjects  might  well  be  added 
one  or  more  of  the  modern  languages.  Our  growing 
commercial  relations  with  other  nations  is  making  more 
and  more  important  the  study  of  Spanish,  German,  and 
French.  It  is  quite  possible  that  Japanese  and  Chinese 
may  soon  become  equally  important.  One  danger  to  be 
avoided  in  the  selection  of  subjects  other  than  the  purely 
commercial  branches  is  that  too  many  may  be  added. 
I  believe  that  this  feature  of  the  report  of  the  Committee 
of  Nine  might  justly  be  criticised.  Fewer  subjects  and 
more  time  given  to  each  one  would  produce  better  results 

1  These  papers  appear  in  the  Journal  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, 1904. 

KTATE  T ' 


402  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  disarm  much  of  the  criticism  which  is  frequently,  and, 
I  believe,  justly,  made  upon  the  work  done  in  many  high 
school  commercial  departments. 

Importance  of  Stenography. — There  seems  to  be  a 
very  general  misconception  on  the  part  of  young  people, 
especially  young  men,  as  to  the  value  which  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  stenography  would  be  to  them.  Many 
high  school  and  university  people  often  fail  to  appreciate 
the  educational  as  well  as  the  commercial  value  of  sten- 
ography. This  is  no  doubt  due  to  lack  of  a  definite 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  I  think  it  worth  while,  there- 
fore, to  discuss  it  somewhat  at  length. 

Stenography,  viewed  from  the  commercial  stand-point, 
is  included  in  this  course  for  three  reasons:  (i)  It  en- 
ables young  people  at  the  very  beginning  of  their  com- 
mercial life  to  earn  a  better  salary  than  they  could  hope 
to  secure  as  mere  beginners  in  any  other  position.  (2) 
It  affords  excellent  opportunities  to  acquire,  in  a  rapid 
and  thorough-going  way,  a  definite  knowledge  of  every 
detail  of  the  business  in  which  one  may  be  engaged, 
and  at  the  same  time  enables  one  to  gain  a  broader 
vision  of  the  principles  underlying  business  transactions. 
(3)  It  offers  every  possible  opportunity  for  young  people 
to  show  their  understanding  of  business  affairs  and  to 
secure  promotion  to  important  and  responsible  positions 
much  sooner  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

There  are  in  the  commercial  world  to-day  so  many 
illustrious  examples  of  prominent  men  who  owe  their  suc- 
cessful start  in  life  wholly  to  the  opportunities  afforded 
them  in  positions  as  private  secretaries,  that  there  seems 
to  be  small  need  to  discuss  at  length  this  feature  of  the 
subject.  The  following  quotation  from  an  address  re- 
cently delivered  by  President  William  H.  P.  Faunce,  of 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  403 

Brown  University,  before  the  graduating  class  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  bears  directly  on  this  phase  of 
the  subject.  President  Faunce  said:  "Another  calling 
which  few  young  men  are  equipped  to  enter  is  that  of 
private  secretary.  Somehow,  our  ablest  young  men  have 
thought  of  stenography  as  suited  only  to  girls  in  their 
teens,  and  secretarial  duties  as  furnishing  small  field  for 
ambition.  Quite  the  contrary  is  the  case.  The  private 
secretary  of  Grover  Cleveland  left  his  imprint  on  our 
country.  The  private  secretaries  of  William  McKinley 
and  Theodore  Roosevelt  very  speedily  emerged  into  pub- 
lic life.  The  great  need  of  every  young  man  when  he 
gets  out  of  school  is  to  go  into  training  under  a  master. 
The  private  secretary  to  a  strong,  resourceful  leader  of 
men  has  the  finest  training  a  country  can  afford,  has 
opportunity  for  large  horizon,  mastery  of  methods,  and, 
later,  for  an  independent  career." 

Stenography,  when  properly  taught  and  thoroughly 
mastered,  has  even  greater  value,  considered  from  a 
purely  educational  stand-point.  To  become  even  a  mod- 
erately successful  stenographer  one  must  have  training 
along  several  lines,  each  one  of  which  has  large  educa- 
tional value.  These  are  as  follows:  (i)  It  compels  one 
to  think  quickly  and  accurately.  It  is  of  great  value  to 
any  one  to  be  thoroughly  awakened  mentally  and  to  have 
acquired  power  to  think  clearly.  (2)  The  scientific  study 
and  practice  of  stenography  compels  the  development  of 
greater  ability  to  hear  things  accurately.  The  inability 
of  the  average  high  school  and  college  student  to  hear 
all  that  he  should  and  hear  it  accurately  is  really  appall- 
ing. Stenography,  more  than  any  other  study,  will  very 
largely  overcome  this  almost  universal  weakness.  (3) 
Mastering  the  technic  of  memorizing  is  an  especially 


404  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

important  feature  which  results  from  the  thorough  train- 
ing of  this  subject.  I  do  not  know  of  any  other  subject 
which  affords  an  equally  valuable  and  specific  training. 
(4)  The  most  important  mental  training  resulting  directly 
from  this  study  is  the  development  of  ability  to  concen- 
trate the  whole  mind  upon  the  work  in  hand.  If  the 
average  high  school  or  university  student  possessed  prop- 
erly developed  ability  to  concentrate  his  entire  atten- 
tion upon  his  studies  and  do  it  continuously  for  as  long  a 
period  as  the  average  mind  is  actually  able  to  sustain  the 
effort,  he  could  easily  complete  the  four-year  high  school 
course  or  the  four-year  university  course  in  three  years, 
or  even  less  time,  and  not  overwork.  Professor  William 
A.  Hadley  recently  said:  "The  teachers  of  the  fourth- 
year  pupils  in  the  Boston  High  School  find  that  the  pupils 
who  have  taken  stenography  have  the  power  of  attention 
and  concentration  best  developed  of  any  who  come  to 
them."  Since  the  study  of  stenography  is  especially 
valuable  in  developing  such  power,  it  seems  that  there 
should  be  no  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  introduc- 
ing this  subject  in  every  high  school,  not  only  as  a  part  of 
the  commercial  course,  but  also  as  a  regular  discipli- 
nary study. 

Text-Books. — The  text-books  in  use  in  teaching  the 
commercial  branches  have,  in  most  cases,  kept  pace  with 
the  progress  of  the  time.  In  nearly  all  lines  of  commer- 
cial work  the  teacher  is  able  to  obtain  texts  that  are 
modern  in  their  methods  and  based  upon  recognized 
pedagogical  principles.  Unfortunately,  this  cannot  be 
said  of  the  majority  of  stenographic  text-books  now  in 
use.  While  the  texts  on  this  subject  are  decidedly  better 
than  those  of  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago,  there  is  still 
large  room  for  improvement.  The  reason  for  this  is 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  405 

quite  evident.  In  many  cases  the  writers  of  stenographic 
text-books  have  been  men  with  limited  education  and 
no  special  aptitude  for  such  work.  In  most  instances 
the  authors  have  been  men  with  large  practical  experience 
who  have  seemed  to  think  that  ability  to  do  reporting  im- 
plied a  fitness  to  write  text-books  on  the  subject.  This 
is  a  combination  of  qualities  which  rarely  exists,  even 
in  a  moderate  degree,  in  any  individual.  The  dispo- 
sition to  cater  to  the  popular  demand  for  a  short  course 
is  another  thing  that  has  had  a  very  detrimental  effect 
upon  the  grade  of  stenographic  text-books  being  produced 
to-day.  While  this  has  resulted  in  eliminating  much  of 
the  lumber  which  encumbered  the  older  texts,  this  de- 
mand for  a  course  brief  enough  to  enable  one  to  begin 
earning  a  salary  within  a  few  months  after  taking  up  the 
study  has  caused  many  text-book  writers  to  go  to  the 
extreme  limit.  Many  of  the  texts  on  the  subject  have 
been  made  so  brief  that  the  mastery  of  them  cannot  possi- 
bly produce  creditable  results.  It  has  apparently  caused 
the  majority  of  stenographic  text-book  writers  and 
teachers  to  forget  that  it  takes  time  to  enable  the  student 
to  do  skilled  work.  Many  teachers  find  it  necessary  to 
supplement  the  brief  and  inadequate  texts  they  are 
obliged  to  use.  There  is  also  much  confusion  resulting 
from  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  principles  as  presented 
in  the  different  texts  on  each  of  the  various  systems  of 
stenography.  This  latter  feature  interferes  seriously  with 
the  proper  development  of  the  pedagogy  of  the  subject. 
Office  Exhibits  and  Appliances. — There  has  been  very 
satisfactory  progress  in  the  development  of  commercial 
exhibits  and  mechanical  appliances  for  use  in  commer- 
cial work  and  available  for  instruction  purposes.  Schools 
may  obtain  at  moderate  cost  excellent  exhibits  of  raw 


406  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

material  of  agricultural  and  mineral  products  of  this  and 
other  countries.  Exhibits  especially  prepared  for  high 
school  purposes  and  suitable  for  such  use  add  greatly  to 
the  interest  of  the  student  in  his  work  and  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  study  at  first-hand  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  the  material  with  which  he  will  have  so  much 
to  do  in  his  real  life  work.  In  the  line  of  office  appli- 
ances the  commercial  teacher  is  especially  fortunate  in 
having  available  excellent  devices  of  every  description. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  loose-leaf  record  books  in 
great  variety,  filing  cabinets,  adding  and  listing  machines, 
letter-copying  presses,  typewriters,  duplicators,  envelope 
sealers,  stamp-affixing  machines,  addressing  machines, 
time  records,  card  indexes,  numbering  machines,  change- 
making  machines,  check  protectors,  etc.  The  only  defect 
deserving  of  mention  in  these  appliances  is  in  the  type- 
writer. I  refer  to  the  unscientific  arrangement  of  the 
letters  upon  the  key-board;  and  the  lack  of  entire  uni- 
formity of  arrangement  of  the  keys  on  the  different  ma- 
chines in  common  use.  It  is  unfortunate  that  such  an 
arrangement  was  originally  adopted.  The  use  of  the 
typewriter,  however,  has  become  so  general  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  make  the  desired  change,  no 
matter  how  beneficial  such  a  change  might  be. 

Better  Preliminary  Preparation. — The  advocates  of  com- 
mercial education  have  come  to  recognize  the  desira- 
bility of  as  thorough  preparation  as  possible  by  the 
student  before  beginning  the  work  on  the  commercial 
branches.  Those  who  have  given  the  matter  careful  con- 
sideration are  generally  agreed  that  the  later  in  the  high 
school  course  the  commercial  studies  are  introduced  the 
better.  The  reasons  are:  (i)  Placing  it  late  in  the 
course  acts  as  an  incentive  to  the  student  who  wishes  to 


COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  407 

study  business  subjects  to  make  the  required  prepara- 
tion in  order  to  be  allowed  to  enter  the  commercial  de- 
partment. (2)  The  student  taking  this  work  during  his 
third  and  fourth  years  is  better  able  to  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  subject-matter  and  the  importance  of  mastering 
it  as  completely  as  possible.  (3)  The  student  is  better 
able  to  use  his  knowledge  than  would  be  possible  if  these 
branches  were  studied  during  the  earlier  part  of  his  high 
school  course. 

Obstacles  to  Be  Overcome. — While  the  progress  of  com- 
mercial education  has  been  exceedingly  creditable,  still 
greater  development  is  possible.  The  obstacles  which 
still  stand  in  the  way  of  greater  progress  are:  (i)  The 
fact  that  many  influential  schoolmen  still  hold  the  idea 
that  the  commercial  studies  are  not  truly  educational. 
This  objection  is  rapidly  disappearing  as  people  come  to 
realize  more  fully  that  the  subject  studied  is  not  the  only 
test  of  educational  value,  but  that  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  taught,  the  thoroughness  with  which  it  is  studied, 
and  the  interest  which  the  student  takes  in  his  work 
are  quite  as  important  factors  as  the  subject  itself  when 
considering  educational  values.  (2)  The  instruction  in 
these  branches  during  the  past  half-century  in  the  so- 
called  commercial  colleges  has  in  the  large  majority  of 
cases  been  discreditable,  because  it  has  not  been  of  a  grade 
to  gain  the  recognition  and  respect  which  these  subjects, 
when  properly  taught,  really  deserve.  The  introduction 
of  business  education  in  high  schools,  with  the  better 
teaching  which  has  resulted  and  the  decided  improve- 
ment which  is  being  made  in  the  quality  of  teaching  in 
the  better  class  of  private  schools,  is  rapidly  overcoming 
this  obstacle.  (3)  The  lack  of  generally  accepted  canons 
as  to  how  the  commercial  subjects  may  be  taught  to  the 


408  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

best  advantage  is  a  really  serious  objection  which  will 
require  time  to  overcome.  It  is  certainly  a  credit  to  those 
who  have  been  and  are  engaged  in  this  work  that  such 
splendid  results  have  been  produced  under  such  adverse 
circumstances.  (4)  The  lack  of  opportunity  for  the 
commercial  teacher  to  obtain  special  training  in  his  line 
of  work.  Only  a  small  number  of  our  colleges  and  nor- 
mal schools  are  thus  far  prepared  to  offer  courses  of  this 
kind,  and  those  offered  are  of  necessity  largely  experi- 
mental. Fortunately,  all  of  these  obstacles  are  being 
overcome  and,  as  a  result,  commercial  education  is  gain- 
ing the  respect  and  influence  to  which  it  is  entitled. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AND  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MANUAL  TRAINING 

E.  C.  WARRINER,  A.B. 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF  SCHOOLS,   SAGINAW,    MICHIGAN 

The  Demand  for  Vocational  Training. — Vocational 
training  is  that  sort  of  training  which  has  for  its  purpose 
definite  preparation  for  earning  a  living.  As  an  aim  of 
the  high  school,  this  represents  a  distinctly  new  point  of 
view.  The  aim  of  education  has  perhaps  always  been 
regarded  as  preparation  for  life,  but  for  life  in  a  general 
sense.  Schools  have  heretofore  been  regarded  as  cult- 
ural in  their  aim.  To-day  many  desire  the  schools  to 
be  vocational,  to  teach  trades  or  callings.  In  a  very 
broad  way,  education  has  always  been  connected  with 
vocation  in  that  the  mental  training  or  discipline  gained 
from  study  in  school  is  capital  for  any  occupation  which 
one  may  enter.  During  the  last  generation,  however,  the 
conception  has  developed  that  formal  discipline,  or  the 
ability  to  turn  a  general  training  of  observation,  memory, 
or  reason  to  specific  ends,  is  not  so  tenable  a  doctrine 
as  it  had  formerly  been  considered.  One  result  of  the 
weakening  of  this  theory  in  popular  esteem  has  been  an 
insistent  demand  for  courses  of  study  of  a  specific  char- 
acter, preparatory  to  definite  activities  after  the  period  of 
school  life.  Society  has  become  impatient  of  the  time 
required  to  pursue  courses  designed  for  general  culture 

409 


410  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

alone  and  has  demanded  what  is  called  a  more  practical 
education.  It  is  only  within  the  past  decade,  however, 
that  this  demand  has  had  any  appreciable  effect  upon 
high  school  courses  of  study.  Up  to  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  avowed  purpose  of  all  high  school  in- 
struction was  general  in  its  nature,  preparing  for  life,  to 
be  sure,  but  for  life  in  a  broad  sense,  not  specifically  for 
earning  a  livelihood.  But  during  the  first  ten  years  of 
the  twentieth  century  there  has  been  a  marked  tendency 
to  offer  vocational  courses  in  high  schools. 

The  Commercial  Course. — A  good  illustration  of  voca- 
tional training  in  the  high  school  is  the  commercial  course. 
This  was  the  first  concession  made  by  high  schools  to  the 
cry  of  the  public  for  the  practical  in  education.  The 
commercial  course  as  at  first  introduced  included  com- 
mercial arithmetic,  book-keeping,  English,  algebra,  and 
history.  In  order  to  appeal  to  a  class  of  students  who 
could  not  be  expected  to  remain  in  the  high  school  for 
the  regular  four-years'  period,  either  from  financial  or 
other  reasons,  the  commercial  course  was  made  a  two- 
year  or  a  three-year  course  and  some  high  schools  gradu- 
ated students  with  diplomas  at  the  end  of  these  short 
courses.  The  first  effect  of  these  shorter  courses,  paral- 
leling part  way  the  full  four-years'  course,  was  to  cheapen 
the  commercial  course  in  the  eyes  of  the  educational 
world,  and  consequently  to  lower  high  school  standards 
of  scholarship.  To-day,  commercial  courses  in  our  larger 
high  schools  are  four  years  in  length  and  they  include,  in 
addition  to  the  studies  named  above,  commercial  geog- 
raphy, commercial  history,  political  economy,  commer- 
cial law,  business  practice,  stenography,  and  type-writing. 
The  aim  of  these  courses  is  distinctly  vocational  and 
their  graduates  are  able  to  step  immediately  from  the 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  411 

school  into  offices  and  counting-rooms.  Another  defi- 
nite vocational  high  school  course  is  that  which  aims 
to  prepare  school-teachers.  In  some  cities  the  high 
school  offers  a  course  of  psychology  for  teachers  to  aid 
in  preparing  those  students  who  wish  to  become  teach- 
ers in  these  school  systems.  The  State  of  Nebraska 
has  an  arrangement  by  which  a  certain  number  of  high 
schools  which  offer  a  course  in  teacher  training  may  re- 
ceive State  aid  to  an  amount  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars  a  year.  Agricultural  courses  offer  a  third  illustra- 
tion of  vocational  training  in  the  high  school. 

Present-Day  Tendencies. — Present-day  tendencies  to- 
ward vocational  training  in  our  high  schools,  however, 
centre  about  those  occupations  which  have  to  do  with 
the  mechanic  arts  for  boys  and  home-making  activities 
for  girls.  This  condition  is  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  man- 
ual training  movement  which  has  swept  over  the  United 
States  during  the  past  generation.  Among  the  educa- 
tional exhibits  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Phila- 
delphia, in  1876,  was  a  showing  of  the  work  of  the  Mos- 
cow Technical  School.  This  exhibit  attracted  much  atten- 
tion and  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  American 
educational  public.  At  that  time,  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  hand  training  existed  in  the  secondary  schools  of  this 
country;  but,  inspired  by  this  Russian  exhibit  and  moved 
by  the  need  of  this  sort  of  training  for  those  who  were  to 
develop  the  resources  of  our  land,  manual  training  high 
schools  made  their  appearance.  The  first  manual  train- 
ing high  school  in  the  United  States  was  established  in 
connection  with  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, in  1880.  The  Chicago  Manual  Training  School 
was  established  in  1884  by  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chi- 
cago to  prepare  young  men  for  technological  colleges  as 


412  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

well  as  for  entrance  upon  mechanical  pursuits.  This 
school  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  history  of  manual 
training  and  was  finally,  in  1897,  incorporated  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

The  essential  features  of  these  early  manual  training 
schools  were  shop  equipments  for  work  in  both  wood 
and  iron.  The  wood-working  shops  were  fitted  out  for 
cabinet-making  and  joinery,  while  the  equipment  for 
iron-work  included  a  forge  shop  and  a  machine  shop  with 
the  typical  machine  tools.  The  early  courses  of  study  re- 
quired the  making,  for  the  most  part,  of  various  exercises, 
or  models,  as  they  were  called,  designed  to  teach  the  use 
of  the  different  wood  and  iron  working  tools.  Planing 
and  boring  exercises  and  the  different  kinds  of  joints  were 
made  in  the  wood  shops,  with  drawing  out,  upsetting,  and 
welding  in  the  forge,  and  lathe  exercises  in  the  machine 
shop.  The  primary  aim  in  these  courses  was  general,  not 
specific;  cultural,  not  vocational.  It  was,  to  be  sure,  a 
culture  gained  by  the  use  of  a  new  sort  of  material,  but 
the  essentials  insisted  on  were  keenness  of  observation 
and  accuracy  of  execution. 

The  Need  for  Vocational  Training. — In  the  past  ten 
years,  however,  the  vocational  aim  has  been  rising  into 
prominence.  Undoubtedly,  the  strong  materialistic  ten- 
dency of  the  present  age  has  had  much  to  do  with  this  rise. 
The  question  cui  bono?  insistently  challenges  every  idea 
to-day,  and  the  manual  training  course  of  study  has  not 
escaped  the  challenge.  Mental  growth,  the  effect  of  any 
course  of  study  on  the  development  of  the  intellect,  is 
hard  to  measure.  The  things  of  the  spirit  are  elusive 
when  it  comes  to  defining  them  in  terms  of  the  yard- 
stick. The  advocates  of  manual  training  have  not  always 
been  able  to  point  to  concrete  results  in  school  sufficiently 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  413 

striking  to  justify  the  early  claims  for  its  incorporation 
into  the  course  of  study.  It  has  not  been  conclusively 
shown  that  intellectual  stamina  has  been  developed  by 
manual  training  of  different  calibre  from  that  built  up 
by  the  study  of  the  ordinary  school  subjects.  The  train- 
ing in  deftness  of  hand  has,  however,  been  marked.  This 
result  is  so  desirable  and  is  so  valuable  an  asset  for  any 
and  all  walks  in  life  that  no  one  suggests  to-day  the  elim- 
ination of  manual  training  from  our  courses  of  study. 
The  tendency  is  rather  to  emphasize  in  a  greater  degree 
this  skill  of  hand  and  to  organize  in  the  schools  courses 
which  shall  train  the  hand  for  a  particular  line  of  activity, 
in  short,  for  a  life  vocation.  A  second  and  more  funda- 
mental reason  for  the  rise  of  vocational  training  emerges 
out  of  the  democratic  spirit.  The  spirit  of  democracy, 
which  is  a  regard  for  the  individual's  rights  and  capaci- 
ties, is  steadily  growing,  the  world  over.  This  spirit 
has  a  vital  influence  on  education.  Men  differ  in  their 
ability,  both  mental  and  physical,  and  in  their  tastes  and 
aptitudes.  Therefore,  their  education  should  vary  in 
accordance  with  these  differences.  The  highest  ideal  of 
life  is  the  development  of  each  individual  to  his  fullest 
capacity.  Especially  in  a  republic,  where  every  man  has 
the  privilege,  equally  with  every  other,  of  being  a  ruler, 
each  man's  freest  development  should  be  the  ultimate 
goal.  For  this  development  education  stands  and  schools 
are  established.  Because  the  individual  units  in  the 
schools  differ  among  themselves,  the  schools  which  train 
them  should  differ.  The  first  years  of  school  should 
teach  the  same  things  to  all  children;  they  should  give 
the  tools  of  learning,  ability  to  read,  to  write,  and  to 
cipher.  At  the  ages  from  twelve  to  sixteen  (authorities 
differ  as  to  the  wisest  time)  education  should  be  differ- 


414  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

entiated.  Those  whose  life  activity  is  to  be  predomi- 
nantly mental  should  go  forward  to  study  from  books  and 
in  laboratories.  Those  who  are  to  be  the  toilers  of  the 
world,  who  are  to  make  their  living  primarily  with  their 
hands,  should  be  given  an  education  or  a  training  for  the 
most  part  in  shops,  in  actual  contact  with  things.  By 
this  course  of  reasoning,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that 
different  kinds  of  vocational  schools  or  courses  should  be 
provided  to  meet  the  varying  needs  of  the  individuals  of 
a  democratic  society. 

The  Duty  of  the  State. — Granted  that  schools  should 
differ,  the  practical  question  soon  arises  as  to  the  duty  of 
the  State  in  providing  at  public  expense  these  different 
types  of  schools.  Is  it  possible  for  the  State  to  train 
for  every  occupation,  when  occupations  are  so  varied? 
Should  not  the  individual's  preparation  for  bread-winning 
be  left  to  his  own  initiative  ?  Is  there  not  danger  of  weak- 
ening the  will  and  of  bringing  up  a  generation  which 
will  look  to  a  paternalistic  State  for  everything,  if  the 
policy  of  State-supported  vocational  schools  is  adopted? 
These  are  queries  which  inevitably  confront  those  who 
consider  this  subject.  They  cannot  be  definitely  and 
finally  answered  as  yet.  We  are  in  an  unsettled  stage 
as  regards  vocational  training  in  the  public  schools. 
Many  theories  are  held  and  many  experiments  are  going 
on  to  test  the  wisdom  of  these  policies.  At  the  present 
time,  the  idea  of  vocational  training  is  popular.  The 
people  are  willing  to  spend  money  for  such  training,  but 
the  provisions  already  made  must  be  regarded  as  tenta- 
tive and  experimental.  The  American  people  will  un- 
doubtedly support  any  movement  for  the  promotion  of 
the  general  welfare.  If,  then,  the  result  of  study  and  re- 
flection and  of  actual  trials  proves  to  the  satisfaction  of 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  415 

the  public  that  vocational  schools  and  vocational  train- 
ing in  the  high  school  make  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
country,  our  public  school  system  will,  beyond  question, 
be  reorganized  so  as  to  train  for  definite  callings.  An 
occupation  in  life  is  absolutely  essential  to  every  one. 
The  world  has  no  place  for  the  idle.  "If  one  will  not 
work,  neither  shall  he  eat."  These  are  fundamental 
principles.  The  State,  therefore,  should  see  to  it  that 
every  one  is  trained  for  an  occupation.  Many  States  of 
the  Union  have  committed  themselves  definitely  to  voca- 
tional education  in  the  higher  realms  by  the  establish- 
ment of  State  universities  where  are  trained,  at  public 
expense,  lawyers,  physicians,  dentists,  engineers,  teach- 
ers, etc.  The  only  reason  for  providing  such  training 
by  the  State,  and  omitting  the  training  for  the  ordinary 
trades  of  the  world,  such  as  those  of  the  carpenter, 
plumber,  or  bricklayer,  is  that  the  professions  are  more 
necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  State.  This  proposition 
would  be  difficult  to  substantiate.  From  this  point  of 
view,  then,  either  the  State  must  abandon  its  long-estab- 
lished policy  of  educating  for  the  professions  or  it  must 
enlarge  the  scope  of  its  endeavors  so  as  to  train  its  hum- 
blest citizen  to  the  limit  of  his  capacity.  Judging  from 
present  conditions  and  tendencies,  the  latter  will  be  the 
alternative  chosen. 

The  Elementary  School. — At  this  moment  the  move- 
ment toward  vocational  training  at  public  expense  is 
more  marked  in  the  region  of  the  elementary  school  than 
in  that  of  the  high  school.  At  least  three  States,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York  and  Wisconsin,  have  already  enacted 
laws  providing  State  aid  to  communities  which  establish 
trade  or  vocational  schools.  The  State  of  Massachusetts 
pays  half  the  running  expenses  of  such  a  school,  while 


416  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

New  York  pays  five  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  teacher 
and  two  hundred  dollars  for  each  additional  teacher. 
Worcester,  Springfield,  Newton,  Lawrence,  Beverly,  and 
New  Bedford,  in  Massachusetts,  and  Rochester,  Albany, 
and  New  York  City,  in  New  York,  are  among  the  com- 
munities which  have  opened  schools  under  these  statutes. 
Boys  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  fourteen  and  are  taught 
for  two  years  the  rudiments  of  such  trades  as  carpentry, 
plumbing,  printing,  electrical  construction,  and  machine- 
shop  practice.  This  instruction  for  two  years  shortens  by 
so  much  the  period  of  apprenticeship  for  those  who  enter 
the  factory  at  sixteen.  The  Worcester  (Massachusetts) 
Trade  School  offers  a  four-year  course,  and  aims  to 
train  competent  journeyman  machinists,  cabinet-makers, 
and  pattern-makers.  The  Wisconsin  legislature  of  1911 
passed  a  law  giving  State  aid  to  communities  which  es- 
tablish industrial,  commercial,  continuation,  and  evening 
schools.  This  State  aid  amounts  to  one  half  the  total 
cost  of  the  school. 

The  High  School. — The  high  school  has  not  responded 
so  quickly  to  the  public  demand  for  vocational  training 
as  the  elementary  school.  But  few  high  schools  are  to- 
day offering  courses  which  are  avowedly  vocational,  ex- 
cept the  commercial,  teacher-training,  and  agricultural 
courses,  already  spoken  of.  A  few  definitely  vocational 
courses  are  to  be  noted  here  and  there  over  the  country. 
The  high  school  at  Menomonie,  Wisconsin,  offers  courses 
in  architectural  drafting,  machine  drafting,  machine- 
shop  practice,  plumbing,  and  bricklaying,  for  pupils  in 
the  last  two  years  of  the  high  school,  which  approximate 
trade  courses.  The  mechanical  work  of  the  first  two 
years  in  the  Menomonie  High  School  comprises  joinery, 
wood-turning,  pattern-making  and  foundry-practice,  and 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  417 

mechanical  drawing.  .The  drawing  of  these  two  years 
is  preliminary  to  special  trade  training,  designed  to  give 
familiarity  with  the  shop  tools  used  in  the  ordinary  fac- 
tory. It  is,  therefore,  general  in  its  character,  while  the 
work  of  the  last  two  high  school  years  is  special,  pre- 
paring for  the  trades  mentioned.  The  courses  for  girls 
in  cooking  and  sewing  in  the  Menomonie  High  School,  or 
in  domestic  science  and  domestic  art,  as  the  present 
broadened  courses  in  these  subjects  should  more  properly 
be  called,  are  elaborately  worked  out.  The  domestic 
science  course  includes,  besides  cooking  and  sewing,  a 
study  of  food  values,  dietaries,  marketing,  household 
management — comprising  sanitation  and  ventilation,  ar- 
tistic furnishing  of  the  home,  keeping  of  household  ac- 
counts, the  problem  of  domestic  labor,  and  apportion- 
ment of  income.  The  domestic  art  course  takes  up 
plain  sewing  and  garment-making,  dress-making,  milli- 
nery, and  art  needle-work.  These  courses  for  the  girls 
are  vocational  in  the  best  sense,  preparing  the  high  school 
girl  for  home-making,  which  will  be  the  life  vocation  of 
most  of  them. 

Spread  of  the  Movement. — The  Menomonie  High 
School  is  typical  of  an  increasing  number  of  high  schools 
throughout  the  United  States.  Wherever  high  schools 
have  introduced  so-called  manual  training  or  industrial 
courses  side  by  side  with  the  ordinary  or  academic 
courses,  the  development  of  these  new  courses  has  been 
similar  to  that  described  above.  In  the  Eastern,  North 
Central,  and  Western  States,  the  majority  of  high 
schools  in  cities  of  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  in- 
habitants are  to-day  giving  such  instruction,  while  the 
movement  is  rapidly  spreading  to  include  the  smaller 
cities.  In  more  than  half  of  the  one  thousand  three 


418  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

hundred  and  forty-eight  cities  in  the  United  States,  hav- 
ing four  thousand  inhabitants  and  over,  manual  train- 
ing finds  a  place  in  the  public-school  system,  according 
to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation for  1908-9.  While  these  courses  are  not  often 
described  as  vocational,  they  certainly  have  a  closer  con- 
nection with  life  outside  the  school  than  the  cultural 
courses  of  the  old  high  school. 

Practical  Difficulties  in  Organizing  Trade  Instruction. — 
One  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  giving  trade  instruction 
in  the  public  schools  is  the  great  diversity  of  occupations. 
The  school  cannot  undertake  to  turn  out  tradesmen  for 
every  trade,  as  the  numbers  preparing  for  the  separate 
trades  would  be  so  small  in  all  save  the  largest  cities  as  to 
make  the  employment  of  special  teachers  for  each  group 
a  financial  impossibility.  Many  pupils  of  the  high  school 
age  have  not  yet  determined  upon  their  life  pursuit. 
However  desirable  it  may  be  for  youth  at  as  early  a  period 
as  possible  to  settle  upon  their  life  work,  the  spirit  of 
democracy  keeps  alive  the  young  man's  ambition  and 
keeps  open  the  way  before  him,  so  that  much  experi- 
mentation is  gone  through  before  the  youth  finally  settles 
down  to  his  permanent  calling.  Such  being  the  con- 
ditions in  our  society,  the  most  feasible  policy  for  high 
schools  to  follow  in  vocational  training  would  seem  to 
be  to  afford  instruction  in  the  fundamental  processes  of 
all  trades,  namely,  wood  and  iron,  together  with  busi- 
ness training,  now  given  under  the  head  of  commercial 
courses.  Such  instruction  as  is  now  offered  in  the  Me- 
nomonie  and  similar  high  schools  helps  the  youth  to  find 
himself  vocationally  and  gives  him,  besides,  a  training 
in  the  elements  of  any  calling  which  deals  with  wood, 
iron,  or  commercial  paper.  At  the  same  time,  in  certain 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  419 

localities  where  the  industries  of  the  community  are  well- 
defined  and  specialized,  as  the  textile  industry  at  New 
Bedford,  and  the  machine  tool  industry  at  Cincinnati, 
the  schools  may  well  emphasize  industrial  courses  which 
will  prepare  for  the  vocations  of  the  community. 

Co-operation  Between  High  School  and  Factory. — A 
plan  of  co-operation  between  the  high  school  and  the 
factory  for  carrying  on  vocational  training  is  receiving 
much  attention  at  the  present  time.  This  scheme  was 
first  worked  out  by  Dean  Herman  Schneider  of  the  engi- 
neering department  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  engineering  students  actual  prac- 
tice in  machine  shops,  co-ordinately  with  their  theoreti- 
cal study  in  the  university.  The  plan  was  first  put  into 
operation  in  a  high  school  in  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts, 
in  the  fall  of  1908.  In  the  Fitchburg  Plan,  as  it  is  now 
called,  the  co-operative  and  industrial  course  is  four  years 
long,  the  first  year  consisting  of  all  school  work,  as  fol- 
lows; English,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  drawing,  both 
free-hand  and  mechanical.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
second  high  school  year,  the  boys  taking  this  course 
are  divided  into  pairs  and  half  their  time  is  spent  in  the 
school  and  half  in  those  factories  of  the  city  which  are  co- 
operating in  this  movement.  One  boy  of  the  pair  spends 
a  week  in  school  while  his  mate  is  in  the  shop;  the  second 
week,  places  are  exchanged,  the  boy  who  was  in  school 
the  first  week  going  to  the  shop  the  second  week  and  the 
boy  from  the  shop  to  the  school.  This  plan  continues  for 
three  years.  The  boys  sign  an  apprenticeship  agreement 
and  are  paid  apprentice's  wages  for  the  time  spent  in 
the  shop.  The  shop  work  is  the  ordinary  practice  of 
a  machinist's  apprentice  in  the  operation  of  the  drill, 
the  lathe,  the  planer,  shaper,  and  milling  machine,  to- 


420  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

gether  with  bench  and  floor  work.  The  school  work 
includes  English,  shop  mathematics,  comprising  algebra 
and  geometry,  physics,  chemistry,  mechanism  of  ma- 
chines, drawing,  civics,  and  first  aid  to  the  injured.  This 
course  is  avowedly  and  specifically  vocational  and  has 
the  advantage  of  combining  in  equal  amount  tkeory  and 
practice.  The  boys  who  complete  this  coiyrsc  will  be 
both  practical  and  theoretical  machinists. 

Technical  Arts  High  Schools. — Besides  tke  plans  for 
vocational  instruction  already  described,  namely,  the 
introduction  of  vocational  courses  or  semi-vocational 
courses  in  existing  high  schools,  side  by  side  with  aca- 
demic courses,  and  the  Fitchburg  co-operative  plan,  a 
third  tendency  has  been  marked  in  the  past  fifteen  years. 
This  is  the  establishment,  in  cities  large  enough  to  need 
more  than  one  high  school,  of  technical,  commercial,  and 
practical  arts  high  schools,  such  as  the  Indianapolis  Man- 
ual Training  High  School,  the  Crane  and  Lane  Tech- 
nical High  Schools  of  Chicago,  the  Cleveland  Techni- 
cal High  School,  the  Boston  High  School  of  Commerce, 
and  the  Washington  Irving  Technical  High  School  for 
Girls  of  New  York  City.  The  earlier  schools  of  this 
kind,  like  the  Indianapolis  Manual  Training  High 
School,  which  was  opened  in  1895,  were  semi- vocational. 
Their  courses,  that  is  to  say,  gave  large  opportunity  for 
shop  work  and  drawing  for  boys  and  for  cooking  and 
sewing  for  girls,  but  they  did  not  definitely  say  that  they 
would  prepare  their  students  for  life  vocations.  Many 
of  their  graduates  have  gone  forward  to  schools  of  engi- 
neering, while  the  great  majority  of  them  have  taken  up 
some  mechanical  pursuit  for  which  their  high  school 
course  was  a  preparation,  more  or  less  direct.  The  ten- 
dency in  such  schools  seems  to  be,  however,  increasingly 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  421 

toward  specific  vocational  ends.  The  Cleveland  Techni- 
cal High  School,  for  example,  states  its  immediate  ends 
as  follows:  "(i)  To  prepare  youth  of  both  sexes  for  a 
definite  vocation  and  for  efficient  industrial  citizenship; 
(2)  to  help  men  and  women  already  engaged  in  a  voca- 
tion to  better  their  condition  by  increasing  their  technical 
knowledge  and  skill."  The  plan  adopted  for  preparing 
boys  for  definite  vocations  in  this  school  is,  first,  to  give 
them  a  general  but  intensive  course  in  manual  training 
for  two  years,  consisting  of  turning,  cabinet-making, 
pattern-making  and  foundry  practice  and  forging.  At 
the  end  of  two  years,  if  peculiar  adaptability  in  any  given 
direction  becomes  evident  to  pupil,  parent,  or  teacher, 
specialization  along  this  line  is  permitted  in  order  that 
upon  graduation  a  pupil  may  be  better  fitted  for  his  life 
work.  The  Boston  High  School  of  Commerce  was  cre- 
ated to  give  boys  a  specific  preparation  for  commercial 
life.  It  aims  throughout  to  develop  a  commercial  spirit 
and  aptitude  for  business.  The  course  of  study  permits 
a  choice  of  subjects  that  will  enable  a  pupil  to  prepare 
for  one  of  the  three  larger  divisions  of  the  commercial 
field,  namely,  secretarial  work,  buying  and  selling,  and 
accounting.  Besides  the  usual  subjects  taught  in  com- 
mercial courses,  such  as  arithmetic,  book-keeping,  ste- 
nography, and  type-writing,  the  broad  character  of  this 
school  may  be  noted  from  mention  of  the  following 
branches  of  study:  commercial  geography,  local  indus- 
tries, economic  history,  commercial  law,  commercial  de- 
sign, business  organization,  commercial  policy,  account- 
ing and  auditing,  consular  service,  Spanish,  French,  and 
German.  The  students  are  taken  from  time  to  time  to 
visit  the  commercial  institutions  of  Boston,  and,  during 
the  summer  vacation,  the  school  secures  positions  for  its 


HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

students  in  offices,  thus  carrying  out  a  practical  sort  of 
co-operation  between  the  school  and  the  business  world. 
The  Washington  Irving  High  School  for  Girls,  in  New 
York  City,  is  a  vocational  school  which  offers  three- 
year  technical  courses,  designed  to  prepare  its  graduates 
for  the  following  occupations:  stenographers  and  type- 
writers, dress-makers  and  embroiderers,  milliners,  de- 
signers, printers,  bookbinders,  and  library  assistants. 
The  Boston  High  School  of  Practical  Arts  for  girls  has 
a  four-years  course  in  both  academic  and  industrial  sub- 
jects. The  industrial  department  offers  three  courses: 
dress-making,  millinery,  and  household  science,  aiming 
to  give  ideals,  taste,  and  skill  which  shall  have  money- 
earning  value  for  the  possessor. 

Agricultural  High  Schools. — Agricultural  courses  in 
high  schools  and  special  agricultural  high  schools  are 
another  type  of  vocational  training,  advocated  widely 
throughout  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  The 
States  of  Minnesota  and  Michigan  have  adopted  the 
policy  of  offering  agricultural  courses  in  high  schools  al- 
ready existing  in  rural  communities  or  small  cities.  This 
course  includes  a  study  of  soils,  seed  selection,  crop  rota- 
tion, animal  husbandry,  fertilizers,  and  farm  accounts. 
Wisconsin  has  set  up  five  county  agricultural  high  schools 
to  the  support  of  each  of  which  the  State  contributes 
four  thousand  dollars  a  year.  The  Southern  States,  not- 
ably Georgia  and  Alabama,  have  established  an  agri- 
cultural high  school  in  each  congressional  district.  But, 
as  in  the  case  of  industrial  high  schools,  the  choice  between 
separate  agricultural  schools  and  agricultural  courses  in 
ordinary  high  schools  is  not  yet  definitely  made. 

Three  Lines  of  Tendency. — Three  distinct  lines  of  ten- 
dency are  thus  marked  out  in  vocational  training  in  sec- 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  423 

ondary  schools :  (i)  vocational  or  semi- vocational  courses, 
side  by  side  with  the  traditional  academic  courses,  (2) 
co-operative  courses  between  the  high  schools  and  the 
factory,  and  (3)  the  separate  high  school,  specially  voca- 
tional in  its  aim.  The  future  development  of  vocational 
training  in  high  schools  will  undoubtedly  be  along  these 
same  lines.  In  the  larger  cities,  where  several  high 
schools  are  required  to  accommodate  all  the  secondary 
pupils,  special  technical  or  vocational  high  schools  are 
bound  to  spring  up  and  persist.  Some  have  seen  a  men- 
ace to  ideals  of  democracy  in  this  segregation  of  our 
youth,  fearing  that  the  result  would  be  a  development  of 
classes  leading  to  ill  feeling  and  caste.  But  democracy 
can  never  mean  equality  in  intellect  or  ability;  it  can  only 
mean  equality  of  opportunity.  The  call  for  vocational 
training,  both  below  the  high  school  and  within  it,  is  the 
most  democratic  movement  of  the  age,  because  it  brings 
the  service  of  the  public  schools  to  every  boy  and  girl 
whatever  their  tastes  and  aptitudes.  The  highest  educa- 
tional ideal  must  be  the  utmost  development  of  which 
the  individual  is  capable  in  the  direction  which  the  in- 
dividual chooses.  This  is  just  what  elementary  trade 
schools  and  vocational  secondary  schools  will  offer.  As 
long  as  the  way  is  open  at  the  top  for  the  individual  to 
go  on  to  a  broader  training,  vocational  schools  will  not 
develop  caste.  It  is  too  early  in  its  history  to  predict 
the  fate  of  the  co-operative  school,  but  the  idea  to  carry 
on  simultaneously  theoretical  instruction  and  shop  prac- 
tice under  actual  factory  conditions  seems  sensible  and 
practical.  Without  question,  the  third  type  of  vocational 
training  described  is  bound  to  spread  most  widely, 
namely,  the  introduction  of  special  vocational  courses  as 
a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school  in  the  ordinary 


424  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

city,  especially  where  shop  and  laboratory  equipments 
are  added  to  the  school.  It  would  seem  feasible  for  such 
high  schools  to  offer  satisfactory  vocational  courses  in 
the  following  occupations:  clerks,  book-keepers,  stenog- 
raphers and  type-writers,  draughtsmen,  electricians,  au- 
tomobile workmen,  machinists,  pattern-makers,  dress- 
makers, milliners,  house-keepers,  lunch-room  assistants. 
To  this  list  may  be  easily  added  other  industries  de- 
manded by  local  conditions,  such  as  textile  workers,  pot- 
tery workers,  cabinet-makers,  etc.  But  the  above  list  of 
occupations  is  general  in  its  character,  applicable  to  living 
conditions  everywhere. 

Result  of  Vocational  Trend  in  Education. — A  marked 
result  of  the  vocational  trend  in  education  is  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  traditional  cultural  courses  in  our  high 
schools.  The  point  of  view  of  these  courses  has  in  the 
past  two  decades  been  severely  criticized  as  being  ex- 
cessively academic,  as  looking  within  and  away  from 
life  outside  school  walls  and  concentrating  energy  on 
refinements  of  scholarship  rather  than  on  service  to  hu- 
manity. In  this  criticism,  the  college  and  university 
have  been  charged  as  chief  offenders  in  their  prescription 
of  entrance  requirements,  which  prevent  youths  from 
following  the  bent  of  their  natural  tastes  and  native  capac- 
ities. Great  changes  have  been  made  in  these  college 
entrance  requirements  in  conformity  with  the  spirit  of  the 
times.  Whereas,  a  generation  ago,  a  youth  to  enter  col- 
lege must  offer  preparation  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathe- 
matics before  everything  else,  to-day  many  options  are 
granted.  Certain  constants  are  still  required  but  these 
are  not  the  same  as  they  were  twenty-five  years  ago. 
Practically  the  only  constants  now  are  English,  algebra, 
and  geometry,  to  which  is  added  a  wide  choice  of  elective 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  425 

requirements,  including  modern  languages,  classics,  his- 
tory, and  science.  At  the  present  moment  the  colleges 
are  besieged  with  the  demand  to  accept  for  entrance  any 
high  school  subject  whatsoever  when  it  has  been  studied 
seriously  rtiid  thoroughly.  The  colleges  and  universities 
have  not  yet  capitulated  to  this  demand,  but  the  attack 
well  illustrates  the  effect  of  the  vocational  emphasis. 
The  vocational  courses  offered  in  the  ordinary  high  school 
have  not  as  yet  been  widely  accepted  as  fit  preparation  for 
entrance  to  college,  but  the  presence  of  these  courses  side 
by  side  with  college  entrance  courses  has  had  an  influence 
on  the  point  of  view  and  methods  of  teaching  of  the 
latter.  In  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  modern  languages, 
one  notes  a  well-marked  tendency  to  give  instruction 
which  shall  touch  the  world  outside  the  school.  Two 
courses  in  physics  have  been  proposed  in  certain  high 
schools,  one  based  exclusively  upon  measurements  and 
preparing  for  college,  the  other  aiming  to  give  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  every-day  uses  of  light,  sound,  and 
electricity.  Chemistry  is  treated  as  industrial  chemistry 
and  the  chemistry  of  foods.  Botany  leans  toward  agri- 
culture and  studies  plant  diseases  as  well  as  plant  struct- 
ure, while  German  and  French  are  taught  in  many  high 
schools  by  a  natural  method,  with  a  definite  attempt 
to  equip  the  student  for  using  them  in  conversation. 
Whether  colleges  will  accept  this  practical  view  of  high 
school  methods  as  fit  preparation  for  advanced  study  or 
not  is,  as  yet,  an  open  question;  but  no  doubt  can  exist 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  trend  toward  vocational  training 
on  educational  thought  in  both  high  school  and  college. 
Vocational  Guidance. — An  interesting  development  in 
connection  with  the  training  of  youth  is  the  recent  move- 
ment for  vocational  guidance.  This  is  an  attempt  to 


426  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

provide  means  for  enabling  young  men  and  women  to 
give  some  study  to  that  most  important  of  all  decisions, 
the  selection  of  one's  life  occupation.  Young  men  the 
world  over  have  in  the  past  chosen  the  calling  of  their 
fathers,  or,  upon  arriving  at  the  proper  age  for  entering 
the  productive  field,  have  followed  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance and  taken  up  the  work  which  lay  nearest  at  hand. 
The  result  has  been  choices  of  occupations  by  chance, 
with  many  misfits  and  failures  in  life.  With  the  growth 
of  the  conviction  that  education  should  fit  directly  and 
specifically  for  life's  activities,  has  developed  irresistibly 
the  truth  that  the  school  cannot  prepare  a  youth  for  a 
vocation  unless  the  youth  knows  what  vocation  he  wishes 
to  follow.  This  is  too  important  a  matter  to  be  left  to  the 
whim  of  the  boy,  or  to  chance;  hence  the  movement  for 
vocational  guidance.  The  method  to  be  used  in  this  at- 
tempt is  the  study  of  the  different  types  of  life  activities 
in  which  men  find  themselves.  For  this  purpose,  the 
library  may  be  consulted  and  books  descriptive  of  indus- 
tries and  occupations  read.  Excursions  to  factories  and 
business  centres  may  be  taken,  which  shall  disclose  to 
the  growing  boy  both  the  desirable  and  the  undesirable 
features  of  various  callings.  Addresses  may  be  given  by 
business  and  professional  men,  telling  of  the  needs  of 
their  vocations  and  of  the  demands  upon  those  who 
choose  to  enter  them.  Teachers  and  parents  should 
make  a  more  systematic  study  of  the  youth's  abilities 
and  characteristics,  so  that  the  advice  which  these  leaders 
of  youth  naturally  give  may  have  a  basis  in  fact,  and  not 
be  merely  guesswork.  If  vocational  training  is  to  be  the 
educational  policy  of  the  future,  vocational  guidance  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  security  of  any  permanently 
valuable  results  from  school  training  for  life  occupations 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING  427 

Summary. — To  summarize  this  chapter:  the  tendency 
is  strong  to  require  of  secondary  schools  a  closer  articu- 
lation with  life  outside  of  the  schoolroom.  While  this 
tendency  is  influencing  the  high  school  in  every  depart- 
ment and  making  over  its  thought  and  methods  of  in- 
struction, vocational  training  is  entering  the  school  in 
three  ways:  (i)  by  the  introduction  of  studies,  vocational 
or  semi-vocational  in  character,  in  the  existing  type  of 
high  school  (2)  by  co-operative  courses  of  study  between 
the  school  and  the  factory  (3)  by  the  establishment 
of  special  high  schools,  distinctively  vocational  in  aim. 
While  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  future,  it  is  alto- 
gether probable  that  the  vocational  trend  will  be  perma- 
nent and  that  secondary  schools  from  now  forward  will 
study  more  carefully  than  in  the  past  the  future  occupa- 
tions of  their  students  and  plan  their  courses  of  study 
accordingly. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS 

CHARLOTTE  JOY  FARNS WORTH,  PH.  B. 

PRECEPTRESS   OF   HORACE   MANN   SCHOOL,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

Double  Aspect  of  High  School  Subjects — Theoretical 
and  Practical. — Broadly  speaking,  the  work  done  in  high 
schools  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  one  deal- 
ing with  principles,  which  may  be  called  theoretical,  and 
the  other  dealing  with  the  application  of  these  principles, 
called  practical.  Both  the  theoretical  and  the  practical 
aspects  of  the  various  subjects  enter  into  all  courses, 
though  some,  like  mathematics,  the  sciences,  and,  in  some 
cases,  the  languages,  emphasize  the  theory  or  underlying 
principles.  For  example,  mathematics,  though  taking 
many  of  its  illustrations  from  practical  life,  is  studied 
almost  wholly  for  the  principles  involved;  science  also, 
while  employing  practical  illustrations  such  as  heat,  light, 
and  electricity,  utilizes  these  illustrations  not  so  much  for 
their  practical  value  as  illustrative  of  scientific  principles. 
Even  language  tends  to  emphasize  structure  and  gram- 
mar. 

The  practical  courses,  domestic  science,  domestic  art, 
the  fine  arts,  including  music  and  literature,  emphasize 
the  acquisition  of  a  technic  and  of  material.  For  in- 
stance, domestic  science  treats  of  the  effect  of  heat  upon 
food,  of  food  composition  and  nutritive  values,  but  makes 

428 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  429 

its  chief  aim  learning  how  to  cook.  Domestic  art  deals 
with  the  study  of  textiles  and  materials,  yet  skill  in  mak- 
ing garments  and  hats  is  its  aim.  The  fine  arts,  while 
dealing  with  the  principles  of  color  and  form,  are  mainly 
concerned  in  acquiring  the  technic  for  making  beautiful 
objects.  In  literature  the  examples  of  lyric  poetry  and 
the  drama  are  memorized,  sometimes  acted  and  sung. 
It  will  be  seen  in  both  theoretical  and  practical  forms  of 
work  that  the  interest  and  aim  are  the  mastery  of  the 
subject. 

Need  for  New  Valuation  of  Studies. — On  the  contrary, 
the  practical  arts  course  described  in  this  chapter  em- 
phasizes neither  the  theoretical  nor  practical  forms  of 
work,  but  propounds  a  distinct  new  question  for  non- 
professional  schools — What  is  this  study  worth  ?  How  is 
it  to  be  utilized  in  every-day  life  ?  Thus,  what  was  sec- 
ondary and  incidental  in  the  other  courses  is  made  funda- 
mental and  central  in  this  course.  We  are  establishing 
a  new  valuation  for  the  high  school  studies.  Instead  of 
the  subject  being  central  the  pupils  are  made  central. 
What  is  necessary  in  order  that  they  may  conduct  their 
lives  with  the  greatest  efficiency  and  satisfaction  is  being 
considered.  The  individual's  health,  shelter  and  cloth- 
ing, social  relations  and  conduct,  and  enjoyments  become 
the  focal  points  of  the  work.  These  divisions  generally 
have  both  theoretical  and  practical  courses  underlying 
them,  such  as  science  courses,  domestic  science,  domes- 
tic art,  and  fine  arts  courses,  while  two  of  them,  social 
relations  and  enjoyment,  closely  as  they  are  knit  to  con- 
duct, the  three-fourths  of  life,  have  no  systematic  work 
upon  which  they  can  rest,  though  much  is  given,  largely 
through  the  personality  of  teachers  and  the  spirit  of  the 
school. 


430  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

By  taking  this  work  in  connection  with  definite  situa- 
tions in  which  the  pupil  finds  himself,  the  complex  theo- 
retical problems  of  ethics  and  psychology  are  avoided  and 
at  the  same  time  methods  of  procedure  and  ideals  of  con- 
duct of  the  utmost  practical  value  are  suggested. 

A  Course  of  Study. — Following  is  a  description  of  such 
a  course  being  given  as  an  elective  to  senior  high  school 
girls,  demanding  two  forty-minute  periods  per  week  in 
recitation  throughout  the  year.  Two  points  credit  is 
given,  the  total  credit  required  for  the  year  being  fifteen 
points. 

The  subject  is  treated  under  five  divisions: 

1.  Economics  of  Clothing. 

2.  Home  Sanitation. 

3.  House  Furnishing. 

4.  Social  Relations  and  Conduct. 

5.  Recreation  and  Enjoyment. 

Each  division  is  conducted  by  one  of  the  regular  teach- 
ers of  the  staff,  the  first  topic  being  treated  by  the  teacher 
of  domestic  art,  the  second  by  the  teacher  of  cookery,  the 
third  by  the  art  instructor,  the  next  by  the  preceptress, 
and  the  last  by  a  supervisor.  Special  lecturers  give  their 
services  for  certain  lessons,  e.  g.,  that  on  "Furniture," 
the  one  on  "Pictures,"  the  two  on  "Health;  Its  Social 
Significance,"  the  talks  on  "Settlements  and  Social  Ser- 
vice," and  on  "Customs  and  Courtesies  of  the  Table." 
Throughout  the  course  lecture  slides  are  used,  a  model 
apartment  in  the  school  serves  as  a  laboratory,  and  illus- 
trative visits  are  made  frequently.  A  detailed  descrip- 
tion follows: 

i.  Economics  of  Clothing. — The  general  topic  of  the 
first  twelve  lessons  is  "  How  to  Clothe  Ourselves." 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  431 

Each  girl  is  urged  to  have  an  allowance  of  her  own  that 
she  may  at  once  assume  some  responsibility  in  regard  to 
spending  money,  and  learn  the  self-control  that  comes 
from  handling  and  accounting  for  a  definite  amount  of 
money.  A  complete  wardrobe  is  planned  and  the  differ- 
ent articles  of  clothing  proportioned.  The  cost  of  each 
and  the  time  it  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  wear 
are  considered.  Allowances  of  different  amounts  are 
planned,  varying  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  eight 
hundred  dollars. 

Working  from  this  personal  element,  family  budgets 
are  next  discussed.  The  work  is  considered  from  the  stu- 
dent's station  in  the  community,  taking  Mrs.  Richard's 
"  Cost  of  Living"  as  a  basis,  the  allowance  for  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  family  is  apportioned,  the  cost  of  men's  and 
children's  clothes  being  also  studied. 

The  study  of  textiles  is  taken  up  from  the  stand-point 
of  the  shopper  only.  Each  girl  writes  for  samples  of 
different  kinds  of  material.  These  are  examined  care- 
fully as  to  quality,  width,  and  price  per  yard,  then  com- 
pared with  standards  of  good  quality,  that  all  may  be- 
come familiar  with  the  appearance,  the  feeling,  and  the 
name  of  these  materials.  Simple  physical  tests  are 
made  for  judging  and  distinguishing  different  kinds  of 
materials. 

The  responsibility  of  the  shopper  both  in  relation  to 
the  quality  of  goods  offered  on  the  market  and  also  to 
the  conditions  under  which  they  are  produced  is  next 
discussed,  and  the  class  is  taken  on  a  shopping  trip  where 
their  attention  is  called  to  simple  good  styles  of  clothing 
and  materials. 

Notes  are  required  throughout  this  series  of  lectures 
and  a  test  is  given  at  the  end. 


432  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

2.  Home  Sanitation. — The  second  series  of  lessons  is 
devoted  to  the  topics  of  the  new  problem  of  the  home 
in  the  city,  apartments  and  flats,  home  sanitation  and 
management,  home  nursing,  and  emergency  work. 

The  series  opens  with  a  discussion  of  how  to  select 
a  home.  The  significance  of  constant  moving  which 
breaks  up  home  associations  is  considered.  Taking  for 
granted  that  every  normal  family  desires  to  own  the  home 
in  which  they  live,  emphasis  is  laid  upon  this  permanent 
abiding  place,  though  most  of  the  considerations  in  its 
selection  will  apply  equally  well  to  the  selection  of  a  house 
for  renting  in  either  city  or  country.  Attention  is  drawn 
to  the  location  of  the  house  with  reference  to  water, 
drainage,  and  accessibility. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  the  structure  of  the  cellar 
and  its  importance  in  governing  the  quality  of  air.  Means 
for  producing  satisfactory  ventilation,  and  the  value  of 
fresh  air  and  cool  temperature  as  seen  in  the  effects  of 
open-air  schools  and  sanitariums  are  discussed.  The 
planning  and  furnishing  of  the  kitchen  and  pantry,  with 
a  comparison  of  various  floor  coverings  and  wall  finishes, 
is  considered. 

Next  we  turn  to  the  economic  problems  which  confront 
the  house-keeper :  the  planning  and  keeping  of  the  fam- 
ily budget,  correctly  proportioning  her  expenditures  to  a 
given  income,  banking,  and  the  much-discussed  servant 
problem,  its  causes  and  possible  means  of  solution. 

The  final  lessons  in  this  series  of  the  course  are  devoted 
to  what  every  one  should  know  in  home  nursing  and 
giving  first  aid  to  the  injured.  The  topics  selected  are 
the  furnishing  of  a  sick-room;  the  making  of  a  bed  and 
care  of  patient  in  bed;  the  staunching  of  bleeding  with 
practice  in  applying  the  simple  and  most  used  bandages; 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  433 

how  to  revive  a  person  in  case  of  fainting,  drowning, 
or  asphyxiation;  treatment  and  care  of  cases  of  burns, 
poisoning,  stings,  bites,  sprains,  and  fractures. 

Complete  and  carefully  kept  notes  are  required  of  the 
students  throughout  this  series  and  practice  work  in 
first  aid  to  the  injured  is  demanded. 

3.  House  Furnishing. — The  third  section  of  the  course 
aims  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  students  to  the  possibilities 
of  good  or  bad  taste  in  the  home. 

Some  of  the  students  never  having  been  in  the  art 
classes,  "Line"  and  "Color"  in  their  general  aspects  are 
treated  first,  in  order  that  the  meaning  of  terms  used  in 
the  succeeding  work  may  be  known  and  appreciated. 

Recognizing  color  as  the  most  potent  factor  for  good 
or  for  ill,  we  first  consider  "  Choosing  a  Color  Scheme." 
This  is  followed  by  lessons  on  the  treatment  of  the  walls  of 
the  room,  including  wood-work,  wall  coverings,  portieres, 
and  curtains.  Then  follows  "Floors  and  Floor  Cover- 
ings." The  fact  that  floors  and  walls  should  be  con- 
sidered as  backgrounds  is  especially  emphasized,  and 
ways  to  achieve  this  desirable  end  are  shown.  Then 
follows  a  lesson  upon  "Furniture:  Its  Proportions  and 
Appropriate  Ornamentation."  Next  comes  "Pictures 
and  Casts:  Their  Choice  and  Arrangement."  The  nega- 
tive side  of  the  subject  is  shown  in  a  lesson  on  "  What 
to  Avoid."  The  most  common  and  flagrant  lapses  in 
good  taste  are  discussed,  the  positive  side  being  re- 
iterated by  fine  examples  shown  in  contrast  to  objec- 
tionable ones. 

Practical  problems  in  "Line"  and  "Color"  are  given. 
For  example,  early  in  the  series  the  girls  are  asked  to 
draw  out  the  floor-plans  of  their  own  rooms,  placing  the 
doors  and  windows  and  the  chief  articles  of  furniture; 


434  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

then  the  side  walls,  showing  the  spacing  and  arrange- 
ment of  furniture  and  pictures;  also  a  description  of  the 
color  scheme.  The  last  problem  asks  for  a  description 
in  words  or  by  drawings,  indicating  what  changes,  if  any, 
they  would  make  in  their  rooms  if  free  to  do  as  they 
pleased. 

The  entire  series  is  fully  illustrated  by  means  of  lan- 
tern slides,  fabrics  of  many  colors  and  textures,  wall- 
papers, rugs,  and  whatever  can  be  brought  in  to  clarify 
the  subject  and  make  it  an  experience  instead  of  mere 
word  knowledge.  To  this  end,  notes  are  not  taken  in 
class — the  desire  being  to  leave  the  girls  free  to  see,  to 
feel,  and  to  enjoy — but  note-books  are  kept,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  subject  they  are  asked  to  write  a  paper  upon 
some  one  of  the  topics  discussed,  wherein  they  shall  show 
their  general  intelligence  and  appreciation. 

4.  Social  Relations  and  Conduct. — The  aim  of  the 
fourth  division  of  the  course,  "  Social  Relations  and  Con- 
duct," is  to  discover  how  to  increase  the  effectiveness 
and  pleasure  and  reduce  friction  when  individuals  meet. 
These  ends  are  sought  by  making  the  student  more  aware 
of  herself  as  a  social  factor,  showing  the  meaning  of, 
and  how  to  attain,  the  best  personal  appearance,  health 
and  manners,  and  how  to  exercise  this  personality  in  the 
home,  the  school,  and  society. 

Special  lectures  are  given  on  health,  the  significance 
of  manners,  and  social  service.  The  lesson  on  "  Courte- 
sies and  Customs  of  the  Table"  is  considered  as  a  bit  of 
laboratory  work  and  conducted  in  a  model  dining-room, 
the  different  members  of  the  class  taking  turns  being 
hostess,  guests,  and  waitresses,  and  putting  into  practice 
immediately  the  points  of  etiquette  and  graciousness 
emphasized. 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  435 

The  other  lessons  of  the  series  are  carried  on  by  means 
of  special  topics.  For  example,  the  five  typical  school 
parties  are  assigned,  each  one,  to  two  students  who  are 
instructed  to  prepare  and  have  written  on  the  blackboard 
before  the  recitation,  an  outline  of  the  committees  and 
their  duties  necessary  to  run  each  party.  The  whole 
class  is  told  to  be  ready  to  criticise,  stress  being  laid 
upon  the  wisdom  of  suggesting  something  better  in  place 
of  the  part  particularly  criticised.  In  this  manner  are 
worked  out  skeleton  plans  for  the  giving  of  these  various 
parties,  plans  which  can  be  used  in  all  future  school 
parties. 

The  series  ends  with  special  lectures  on  the  oppor- 
tunities for  social  work  open  to  high  school  seniors  and 
graduates  having  leisure  and  the  desire  for  regular  social 
occupation. 

5.  Recreation  and  Enjoyment. — The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  fifth  and  last  division  of  the  course  is  that 
it  deals  with  those  forms  of  conduct  that  rise  out  of  the 
free  and  spontaneous  desires  of  the  students,  rather  than 
those  that  are  conditioned  by  necessity  for  food,  clothing, 
or  social  relations.  What  the  pupil  does  in  a  leisure 
period  expresses  character  in  a  way  no  other  work  can, 
for  this  reveals  taste,  desires,  and  ambitions  free  from 
the  pressure  of  outside  necessity.  Because  this  work  is 
spontaneous  and  self-expressive  it  is  perhaps  the  most 
highly  educative.  The  need  for  this  work  will  be  seen 
when  we  consider  how  few  are  born  with  that  supreme 
talent  or  desire  which  forces  the  one  who  possesses  it  to 
become  the  artist  or  scientist.  Many  more  acquire  a 
taste  through  example  or  the  exigencies  of  their  environ- 
ment, but  the  large  majority  of  people  have  no  positive 
guidance  as  to  what  they  would  most  enjoy  doing. 


436  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Hence,  for  lack  of  the  right  stimulus,  they  go  through  life 
without  discovering  the  activities  that  would  have  given 
them  the  greatest  pleasure  and  profit.  It  is  the  aim  of 
this  part  of  the  course 

1.  To  survey  the  chief  forms  of  those  self-activities  that 
fill  up  the  leisure  of  most  people  and 

2.  To  organize  systematically  our  leisure  time  in  order 
to  get  the  highest  enjoyment,  as  we  do  our  business  activi- 
ties in  order  to  get  good  results. 

Under  the  first  head  "outdoor  activities"  are  consid- 
ered, and  the  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  value  of  having 
a  hobby,  such  as  birds,  flowers,  stars,  or  interest  in  natural 
scenery,  historic  places,  or  in  a  knowledge  of  the  game, 
as  in  sports. 

The  second  head  is  considered  from  two  aspects,  that 
of  "  the  productive  activities,"  the  absorbing  interest  that 
comes  from  making  beautiful  and  practical  objects  from 
wood,  iron,  clay,  or  by  weaving  or  painting,  giving  a 
zest  to  what  is  done,  rarely  equalled  by  other  activities 
and  requiring  skill,  energy,  and  effort  for  their  accom- 
plishment. On  the  other  hand,  much  of  our  leisure  is 
spent  in  activities  that  must  be  restful  in  character,  hence 
another  aspect  deals  with  "appreciative  activity";  how 
to  get  the  most  out  of  reading,  poetry,  or  listening  to 
music;  how  to  get  the  most  out  of  the  opera  and  theatre, 
to  make  museums  and  exhibits  not  mere  pastimes,  but 
genuinely  stimulating.  It  is  obvious  that  the  subject- 
matter  of  such  courses  must  be  largely  determined  by 
the  conditions  under  which  the  pupils  live,  city  or  coun- 
try, north  or  south. 

Following  is  a  syllabus  of  the  practical  arts  course 
offered  in  a  city  high  school,  the  numbered  topics  for 
each  lesson  being  given. 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  437 


PRACTICAL   ARTS 

Syllabus  of  a  Course  for  Senior  High  School  Girls. 
I.     Economics  of  Clothing. 
II.    Home  Sanitation  and  Management. 

III.  House  Furnishing. 

IV.  Social  Relations  and  Conduct. 
V.     Recreation  and  Enjoyment. 

Practical  Arts 
Throughout  the  year,  twice  a  week,  sixty  sessions 

I.  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING: 

Aim. — To  plan  an  allowance,  to  learn  something  about  textile 
materials,  and  also  how  to  shop  to  advantage. 

1.  Planning  a  wardrobe.     Different  articles  of  clothing  pro- 

portioned. 

2.  Cost  of  different  articles. 

3.  Comparison  between  the  cost  of  bought  and  home-made 

clothes. 

4.  Comparison  between  allowances  of  $150 — 300 — 500. 

5.  Proportioning  the  allowance  for  the  clothing  of  the  family. 

6.  Planning  the  clothing  for  the  family. 

7.  Materials,  kinds,  cost,  value. 

8.  Cotton,  linen. 

9.  Wool,  silk. 

10.  Simple  tests  for  judging  materials. 

11.  How  to  shop  and  where  to  shop.     The  moral  responsibility 

of  the  consumer. 

12.  How  to  make  clothing  last  long  and  remain  in  good  condi- 

tion.    Some  hints  as  to  the  relation  of  clothing  to 
beauty  and  health. 

II.  HOME  SANITATION  AND  MANAGEMENT: 

General  Aim. — To  study  the  fundamental  principles  of  home 
sanitation  and  management,  and  home  care  of  sick  and  emergency 
work. 

i.  Definition  of  a  home:  Owning  one's  own  home;  types  of 
homes — city  and  suburban;    the  economic  aspect  of 


438  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

rent  paying.  The  suburban  home — study  of  the  site. 
The  facing  of  the  house;  drainage;  elevation;  setting 
out  of  trees;  beautifying  town  houses  and  lots. 

2.  The  water  supply:    Sources  of   contamination;   purifica- 

tion, nitration,  boiling,  distilling,  apparatus  on  the 
market. 

3.  House  plans;   construction  of  cellar. 

4.  Air  supply;   heating  and  lighting. 

5.  Disposal  of  waste:  Household  garbage;  sewerage  systems; 

care  of  plumbing. 

6.  Marketing. 

7.  Food  sanitation;   the  milk  problem;   selection  and  care  of 

milk. 

8.  The  cleaning  of  the  house. 

9.  Household  accounts;  division  of  income.     Banking. 

10.  Planning  the  work  of  the  home;   making  the  menus;    the 

labor  problem. 

11.  Home  nursing:   Furnishing  and  care  of  sick-room;   guard- 

ing against  contagion;  bed  making;  care  of  patient 
in  bed. 

12.  Care  in  cases  of  wounds  and  bleeding;  bandaging;  stings, 

burns,  and  poisoning. 

III.  HOUSE  FURNISHING: 

Aim. — To  study  the  principles  underlying  good  taste  and  economy 
in  household  furnishings, 
i  and  2.     Line. 

Study  of  the  walls  of  a  room  with  reference  to  spac- 
ing, proportion,  beauty  of  line. 
Division  of  wall  spaces. 
Placing  of  picture  moulding,  frieze,  dado. 
Placing  of  furniture. 
Hanging  of  pictures. 
3  and  4.    Color. 

Its  properties,  hue,  value,  intensity. 
Effect  of  one  color  upon  another. 
Complimentary  colors. 
How  to  subdue  a  color. 
Color  vibration. 
Warm  and  cool  colors. 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS  439 

5.  Choosing  a  Color  Scheme. 

The  application  of  3  and  4  to  the  walls  and  furnishings 

of  the  home. 
Colors  suitable  to  different  rooms. 

6.  Walls,  portieres,  curtains. 

Good  and  bad  design  in  wall-papers  or  hangings,  and 

in  textiles. 
Wall  finish  suitable  to  hall,  dining-room,  living-room, 

bedroom,  kitchen. 

7.  Floors  and  floor  coverings. 

Rugs  vs.  carpets. 

Color  and  design. 

Wearing  qualities  of  the  different  kinds. 

Care  of  floors. 

8.  Furniture. 

Construction. 
Proportions. 
Good  lines. 
Appropriateness. 

9.  Pictures,  casts,  and  small  ornaments. 

Choice  of  pictures. 
Framing  a  picture. 
Hanging  a  picture. 
Wise  use  of  casts. 
Value  of  small  ornaments. 

10.  Accessories. 

Conveniences. 

Special  arrangements  for  use  or  beauty. 

Clever  contrivances. 

11.  What  to  avoid. 

A  chapter  of  "Don'ts"  based  upon  observations 

made  by  teacher  and  students. 
Illustrations  of  good  substitutes  for  these. 

12.  Summing  up. 

IV.  SOCIAL  RELATIONS  AND  CONDUCT: 

Aim. — To  study  how  to  increase  the  effectiveness  and  pleasure 
and  reduce  friction,  when  individuals  meet. 
The  Individual.— i.  Health:    Care  of  the  body,  cleanliness,  its 
social  significance. 


440  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

2.  Health:     Effective  exercise,  diet,  rest. 

3.  Manners:   The  means  of  social  expression. 
The  Home. — 4.  Courtesies  and  customs  of  the  table. 

5.  Celebrations  and  festivities. 

6.  Intercourse  with  elders. 
The  School. — 7.  Christmas  fair. 

Class  party. 

Senior  play. 

8.  Basket-ball  game. 

Swimnling  meet. 

Society:  Opportunities  in. — 9.  Settlement  work. 
10.  Other  social  service. 

V.    RECREATION  AND  ENJOYMENT: 

Aim. — To  get  the  most  out  of  our  free  time  and  the  opportunities 
given,  through  widening,  intensifying,  and  clarifying  our  tastes. 
Value  of  plan,  versus  drift,  in  our  leisure  time. 

Outdoor  activities. — i.  Walks  with  special  interests  or  hobbies, 
such  as  birds,  flowers,  stars,  photography. 

2.  Sports. 

3.  Excursions. 

Productive  activity. — 4.  With  tools,  work  in  wood,  iron,  clay; 
printing,  weaving. 

5.  Painting,  decorating. 

6.  Playing  and  singing. 

Appreciative  activity. — 7.  Reading,  poetry,  fiction. 

8.  Listening  to  music,  home,  concert. 

9.  Opera. 

10.  Theatre. 

11.  Museums  and  exhibits. 

12.  Summary  of  course. 

Formation  of  standards  in  living,  doing,  and  feeling. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

PSYCHOLOGY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

IRVING  ELGAR  MILLER,  PH.D. 

DEAN  OF  PROFESSIONAL  WORK,  STATE  TEACHERS*  COLLEGE,  GREELEY, 
COLORADO 

Present-Day  Interest  in  Psychology. — We  live  in  an 
age  of  intense  popular  interest  in  psychology.  There  is 
a  rapidly  growing  feeling  that  whether  a  man's  chief  pur- 
suit be  practical,  philosophical,  or  religious,  he  can  under- 
stand it  properly  only  if  he  pay  deference  to  the  teachings 
of  psychology.  In  every  walk  in  life  from  the  most 
blatant  charlatanry  in  medicine,  religion,  and  advertising 
to  the  most  profound  and  serious  problems  in  therapeu- 
tics, theology,  business  methods,  social  welfare,  criminol- 
ogy, and  education,  we  are  seeking  to  control  practice  by 
reference  to  the  principles  of  psychology.  At  first  but  a 
single  topic  in  the  domain  of  philosophy,  psychology  has 
now  become  a  central  science. 

Relation  of  Psychology  to  Other  Subjects. — In  order 
that  we  may  appreciate  the  value  and  significance  of 
psychology  in  relation  to  the  life  and  thought  of  the  day 
it  is  worth  while  to  work  out  more  fully  its  central  rela- 
tionships with  other  interests  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical. For  a  long  time  the  students  of  epistemology  and 
logic  have  found  the  analysis  of  the  mental  processes 
necessary  to  any  rational  solution  of  the  problems  of  real- 
ity and  truth.  Writers  on  ethics  have  customarily  incor- 

441 


442  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

porated  into  their  works  some  account  of  the  relations 
between  impulse,  feeling,  and  will;  and  they  have  found 
necessary  considerable  analysis  of  the  basis,  value,  and 
efficiency  of  motives.  With  the  advent  of  the  genetic 
point  of  view,  this  analysis  has  broadened  out  to  include 
not  only  considerations  of  child  development,  but  also 
the  racial  or  evolutionary  element  in  the  moral  life. 
Students  of  education  from  the  time  of  Pestalozzi,  Her- 
bart,  and  Froebel  to  that  of  Colonel  Parker  and  John 
Dewey  have  been  continuously  psychologizing  the  con- 
tent, method,  and  spirit  of  instruction,  until  now  one 
cannot  adequately  prepare  to  teach  without  knowing 
something  of  analytic,  physiological,  functional,  genetic, 
social,  and  clinical  psychology.  Sociology,  history,  and 
anthropology  are  no  longer  formulated  in  terms  that 
ignore  the  large  part  played  by  the  psychic  factor.  Even 
the  typical  blindness  of  justice,  hitherto  regarded  as  a 
specially  sacred  characteristic,  is  having  to  give  way 
before  the  open  eye  of  psychical  insight  into  the  nature  of 
the  criminal  and  the  vital  motive  principles  of  reform. 
Criminal  law  and  court  procedure  are  both  being  grad- 
ually reconstructed  in  the  light  of  psychological  science 
to  serve  more  adequately  their  true  function  within  the 
social  whole.  The  science  of  aesthetics  is  impossible,  and 
not  to  be  differentiated  from  a  set  of  interesting  specula- 
tions, except  as  it  is  based  upon  careful  investigation  and 
analysis  of  the  psychological  principles  of  beauty  which 
underlie  music,  painting,  poetry,  and  the  other  fine  arts. 
Religion,  the  most  intimate  of  our  vital  interests,  is  in  our 
day  yielding  to  psychological  analysis  and  thus  finding 
new  methods  of  presentation  better  adapted  to  the  whole 
nature  of  man  and  new  bases  of  appeal  to  his  conscience 
and  his  reason.  In  the  science  and  the  practice  of  medi- 


PSYCHOLOGY  443 

cine  the  psychic  element  is  receiving  wider  recognition 
as  an  important  factor  both  in  the  cure  and  the  preven- 
tion of  disease.  The  world  of  business,  in  attempting 
to  make  its  activities  more  scientific  in  character,  is 
looking  not  only  to  the  sciences  of  economics  and  sociol- 
ogy for  help,  but  also  to  the  science  of  psychology.  Con- 
sequently advertising  and  salesmanship  are  being  re- 
duced to  fine  arts  instead  of  being  left  for  one  to  pick  up 
by  chance  in  the  routine  of  business.  Even  the  rascals 
in  business  and  professional  life  are  seeking  to  employ 
psychology  for  the  better  realization  of  their  selfish  ends 
through  the  perversion  of  the  scientific  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  attention,  persuasion,  suggestion,  hypnotism, 
etc.  The  natural  sciences,  which  have  so  long  prided 
themselves  on  being  purely  objective,  are  beginning  to 
realize  that  they  are  in  part  psychologically  determined. 
The  facts,  truths,  and  organizations  of  material  which 
they  embody  are  not  mere  correspondences  with  external 
reality,  but  represent  selections  of  material  and  solutions 
of  problems  under  the  stress  of  motives  of  human  inter- 
ests, human  needs,  and  human  values. 

In  the  past  the  most  intimate  connections  of  psychology 
have  been  with  philosophy.  Its  independence  from  phi- 
losophy was  not  emphatically  declared  until  1879,  when 
Wundt  founded  the  first  psychological  laboratory.  But, 
if  we  can  judge  by  the  organization  of  college  and  univer- 
sity faculties,  the  actual  independence  of  psychology  is 
a  very  recent  realization.  While  taught  in  many  cases  by 
a  specialist,  psychology  has  customarily  been  classified 
as  a  subject  in  the  department  of  philosophy.  At  the 
University  of  Chicago  the  department  of  psychology 
was  not  actually  separated  from  that  of  philosophy  until 
1904.  This  is  typical  of  the  situation  in  universities  in 


444  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

general,  though  some  may  have  effected  the  separation 
earlier  and  there  are  some  in  which  the  separation  has 
not  yet  been  effected.  Doubtless  for  administrative 
reasons  in  some  of  the  smaller  universities  and  in  many 
of  the  colleges  psychology  and  philosophy  have  to  be 
combined  in  one  department.  Even  where  this  is  the 
case  psychology  is  becoming  quite  generally  independent 
of  philosophy  and  is  more  and  more  free  to  develop 
along  its  own  lines.  The  influence  of  the  physiological 
movement  in  psychology,  of  experimental  method,  and 
of  the  theory  of  evolution  has  finally  transformed  psy- 
chology from  a  philosophical  discipline  to  one  which  is 
dominantly  scientific.  At  the  present  time  this  scientific 
tendency  in  psychology  and  in  its  application  to  educa- 
tion expresses  itself  most  markedly  in  the  emphasis  given 
to  the  biological  and  functional  interpretation  of  conscious 
processes.1  Psychology  from  this  point  of  view,  of  course, 
has  its  philosophical  implications,  but  it  is  not  philosoph- 
ically determined.  Its  range  and  sweep  are  as  broad  as 
those  of  human  interests  and  human  activities. 

Early  Recognition  in  Secondary  Education. — When 
psychology  was  primarily  of  philosophic  significance, 
either  as  representing  a  group  of  phenomena  which  de- 
manded interpretation  at  the  hands  of  the  philosopher  or 
as  furnishing  a  type  of  study  that  was  felt  to  be  a  neces- 
sary propaedeutic  of  philosophy,  it  was  quite  natural  to 

1  As  evidence  of  this  fact  note  the  following  list  of  recent  works,  all  of 
which  are  dominated  by  this  point  of  view:  O'Shea,  "Education  as  Ad- 
justment," 1903;  Home,  "Philosophy  of  Education,"  1904;  Angell, 
"Psychology,"  1905;  Judd,  "Psychology,"  1907;  Miller,  "Psychology 
of  Thinking,"  1909;  Charters,  "Methods  of  Teaching,"  1909;  McMurry, 
"How  to  Study,"  1909;  Ruediger,  "Principles  of  Education,"  1910; 
Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  1910;  Henderson,  "Principles  of  Educa- 
tion," 1910. 


PSYCHOLOGY  445 

think  of  psychology  as  an  integral  part  of  the  college 
course  and  not  appropriate  for  the  secondary  school. 
Yet  it  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  psy- 
chology did  receive  recognition  in  the  academies  and 
finishing  schools  of  our  earlier  history.  There  is  good 
reason  to  think  that  it  was  quite  widely  represented  in  the 
curriculum  indirectly  in  the  teaching  of  logic  and  moral 
philosophy.1  While  we  cannot  get  adequate  statistics  on 
the  subject,  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  psychology  was 
not  infrequently  definitely  recognized  in  the  curriculum  of 
secondary  schools  under  the  head  of  mental  science  or 
mental  philosophy.  The  records  of  the  Department  of 
Education  of  the  State  of  New  York  show  that  in  the  year 
1840  out  of  one  hundred  and  forty-one  academies  in  the 
State  one  hundred  and  four  were  teaching  mental  science. 
This  is  the  largest  proportion  for  any  year  between  1831 
and  1895.  Most  likely  it  was  just  those  academies  which 
regarded  themselves  as  finishing  schools  or  in  those 
courses  of  study  which  were  not  designed  to  fit  for  college 
that  psychology  received  most  recognition.  The  acade- 
mies were  "the  people's  colleges"  of  their  day,  and  they 
tried  to  meet  the  fundamental  needs  of  all  the  people. 
Religion,  emphasizing  the  theological  aspect  strongly, 
was  felt  to  be  one  of  these  fundamental  needs.  The 
teaching  of  the  theological,  or  philosophical,  aspect  of 
religion  made  psychology  necessary.  Psychology  in 
these  institutions  was  then  subordinate  to  philosophical 

1  On  the  curriculum  of  our  early  academies,  see  Brown,  E.  E.,  "The 
Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools."  On  pp.  237,  238,  he  exhibits  the 
course  of  study  of  the  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  for  the  year  1808.  In 
the  English  department  are  specified  logic  and  moral  and  political 
philosophy.  The  curriculum  of  the  first  American  High  School,  Bos- 
ton, 1821,  shows  also  the  requirement  of  logic  in  the  second  and  third 
years  of  a  three-year  course. 


446  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

ends  just  as  in  the  colleges.  Yet  it  is  significant  that 
this  type  of  institution  incorporated  psychology  into  its 
curriculum  because  it  subserved  the  interests  of  the 
many  who  were  not  likely  to  go  to  college.  With  the 
decline  of  the  academy  and  the  rise  of  the  high  school  as 
its  modern  equivalent,  psychology  quite  generally  lost  its 
place  in  the  curriculum.  This  may  have  been  due  to 
the  fact  that  religious  instruction  has  had  little  or  no 
place  in  the  public-school  system.  Not  until  psychol- 
ogy had  developed  along  lines  which  connected  with 
other  interests  in  life  could  we  expect  it  to  come  back  into 
the  curriculum  of  secondary  education.  With  the  growth 
of  psychology  in  scientific  character,  particularly  with 
its  development  of  the  genetic,  racial,  and  social  aspects 
of  the  subject,  this  new  relationship  to  the  common  in- 
terests of  life  first  appeared  in  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  psychology  to  the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 
There  rapidly  developed  a  strong  faith,  in  some  respects  a 
blind  and  unreasoning  faith,1  in  the  efficacy  of  psychology 
to  cure  all  the  ills  of  school-room  method  and  practice. 
Status  of  Psychology  in  the  High  Schools. — The  strong 
movement  in  the  direction  of  the  application  of  psychol- 
ogy to  education  has  not  only  given  added  emphasis  to 
the  teaching  of  the  subject  in  colleges  and  universities,  but 
has  also  brought  it  into  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school 
to  some  extent  as  the  means  of  furnishing  a  minimum 
of  professional  training  for  rural-school  teachers.  Just 
how  strong  this  comparatively  new  movement  in  the 
high  school  is  could  be  ascertained  only  by  a  process  of 

1 1  believe  that  psychology,  while  immensely  important  in  its  relation 
to  education,  has  unduly  occupied  the  focus  of  attention  of  educators  to 
the  unwise  neglect,  now  in  promise  of  remedy,  of  the  contributions  to  be 
made  by  biology,  sociology,  ethics,  and  modern  logic. 


PSYCHOLOGY  447 

investigation.     This  the  author  undertook  with  results 
which  are  described  below. 

A  questionnaire  was  sent  out  to  the  State  superintend- 
ents of  the  various  States  and  also  to  the  high  school  in- 
spectors of  the  State  universities.  Replies  were  received 
from  thirty-five  States,  the  larger  percentage  of  them 
coming  from  the  offices  of  State  superintendents.  For 
purposes  of  interpretation  of  these  replies  the  States  were 
grouped  under  the  following  heads:  The  Middle  West, 
the  Eastern  States,  the  Southern  States,  and  the  Far  West 
(Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  States).  In  several  States 
of  the  Middle  West  psychology  seems  to  be  strongly 
intrenched  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school.  A 
majority  of  the  high  schools  of  Ohio  are  reported  as 
teaching  psychology.  In  Kansas  it  is  reported  as  being 
taught  in  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  high  schools,  and  in 
Nebraska  the  estimate  is  vaguely  set  as  from  one-third 
to  two-thirds  of  the  high  schools  of  the  State  which  teach 
the  subject.  In  Nebraska,  however,  the  main  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  pedagogy.  Iowa  is  reported  as  seeking 
legislation  this  year  looking  to  the  introduction  of  psy- 
chology into  the  high  school  curriculum  as  a  professional 
subject  in  the  preparation  of  rural-school  teachers.  In 
Michigan,  and  also  in  Wisconsin  to  a  less  degree,  the 
county  training  school  flourishes  as  an  institution  for  the 
training  of  rural-school  teachers.  These  schools  receive 
students  directly  from  the  elementary  school  as  well  as 
from  the  high  school.  Psychology  is,  then,  taught  in 
them  to  a  large  class  of  pupils  who  are  certainly  not  in 
advance  either  in  training  or  in  maturity  of  the  senior 
class  of  the  high  school.  In  the  rest  of  the  Middle  West 
psychology  is  not  so  prominent  in  the  curriculum  of 
secondary  schools.  In  the  Dakotas  there  is  reported  to 


448  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

be  very  little  of  it,  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  there  is  practi- 
cally none,  though  there  may  be  one  or  two  exceptions, 
and  in  the  other  States  of  this  group  the  subject  appears 
to  be  practically  a  negligible  element  in  the  high  school 
curriculum.  In  the  Eastern  States  psychology  in  the 
high  school  is  practically  non-existent,  except  in  Penn- 
sylvania where  it  is  reported  to  be  taught  in  about  two 
per  cent  of  the  schools.  Four  out  of  eight  of  the  Southern 
States  reporting  on  this  topic  give  psychology  a  place. 
In  Kentucky  the  proportion  of  high  schools  offering 
psychology  runs  up  to  fifty  per  cent;  in  Oklahoma  about 
thirty  per  cent;  in  Missouri  from  two-and-a-half  to  five 
per  cent.  Virginia  reports  psychology  as  taught  in  about 
twenty-five  high  schools.  One  State,  namely  Arkansas, 
is  reported  as  seeking  legislation  this  year  which  shall 
provide  for  the  teaching  of  psychology  in  the  high  schools 
as  a  means  to  the  better  professional  training  of  rural- 
school  teachers.  In  the  Far  West  there  is  practically 
no  psychology  taught  in  the  high  schools  according  to 
our  reports,  except  in  the  State  of  Colorado,  where  the 
practice  is  quite  general  in  the  cities.  The  main  purpose 
of  psychology  in  the  high  schools  of  Colorado,  however, 
does  not  seem  to  be  the  professional  training  of  rural- 
school  teachers;  but  the  subject  stands  on  its  merits  as 
one  of  value  to  all  students,  the  professional  aspect  being 
incidental.  If  psychology  has  an  abiding  place  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  high  school,  it  is  the  conviction  of  the 
writer  that  it  must  be,  as  in  Colorado,  on  account  of  its 
non-professional  value  rather  than  its  professional  value. 
When  the  universities  and  normal  schools  of  the  country 
wake  up  to  a  true  conception  of  their  function  and  re- 
sponsibility they  are  going  to  devise  ways  and  means  of 
meeting  the  needs  of  every  class  of  teachers.  Moreover, 


PSYCHOLOGY  449 

the  time  will  soon  come,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  when  society 
will  demand  that  the  teachers  of  its  country  boys  and 
girls  shall  be  as  fully  equipped  for  their  task  as  those 
who  teach  the  youth  of  our  cities. 

Value  of  Psychology  in  High  Schools. — To  get  a 
glimpse  of  sentiment  regarding  the  teaching  of  psychol- 
ogy in  secondary  schools  as  a  non-professional  subject, 
we  must  return  to  the  results  of  our  questionnaire  from  a 
different  angle.  In  the  replies  from  the  Eastern  States, 
three  out  of  eight  were  favorable  to  the  teaching  of  psy- 
chology as  a  general  elective  on  a  non-professional  basis. 
From  the  Southern  States  the  sentiment  was  almost 
unanimous  against  the  teaching  of  psychology  as  a  pro- 
fessional subject  in  the  high  school,  yet  out  of  eleven 
replies  two  were  favorable  to  the  teaching  of  the  subject 
as  a  general  elective  and  another  was  doubtful.  From 
the  Far  West  the  sentiment,  except  in  Colorado,  seemed  to 
be  almost  unanimous  against  the  teaching  of  psychology 
in  the  high  school  either  as  a  professional  or  as  a  non-pro- 
fessional subject.  In  Colorado,  where  it  has  been  tried 
for  a  long  time,  the  sentiment  is  strongly  in  favor  not 
only  of  continuing  the  policy,  but  also  of  extending  it. 
In  the  States  of  the  Middle  West,  even  in  those  in  which 
psychology  is  taught  with  special  reference  to  the  train- 
ing of  rural-school  teachers,  the  sentiment  in  favor  of 
psychology  as  a  non-professional  subject  seems  to  be 
more  clearly  denned  than  it  is  for  its  being  taught  as  a 
professional  subject.  It  may  be  remarked  at  this  point 
that  the  State  University  men  who  have  expressed  them- 
selves on  the  subject  are,  on  the  whole,  more  doubtful  as 
to  the  value  of  psychology  in  the  high  school  either  as  a 
non-professional  or  as  a  professional  subject  than  are  the 
State  superintendents. 


450  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Whether  psychology  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high 
school  is  growing  in  favor  or  not  is,  on  the  whole,  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  determine  on  the  basis  of  the  reports  re- 
ceived. There  seem  to  be  indications  that  the  pendu- 
lum is  swinging  slightly  in  its  favor,  particularly  as  a 
non-professional  subject  for  that  class  of  students  who 
do  not  expect  to  go  to  college.  The  question  of  the  ad- 
visability of  offering  psychology  as  an  elective  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  our  secondary  schools  is  one  that  must  ulti- 
mately be  answered  in  the  light  of  its  values  for  life. 
Consequently,  we  shall  enter  upon  some  discussion  of 
these  values. 

Culture  Value  of  Psychology. — The  interrelations  of 
psychology  with  all  classes  of  problems  and  activities  of 
the  modern  world  have  already  been  pointed  out.  From 
this  point  of  view  there  is  certainly  a  very  high  cultural 
value  to  be  assigned  to  the  subject.  It  gives  added  in- 
sight into  the  human  forces  and  factors  that  are  shaping 
the  tendencies  of  the  age.  It  helps  the  individual  to  put 
himself  into  sympathetic  relations  with  many  phases  of 
life  which  must  otherwise  remain  merely  curious  and 
interesting  objective  phenomena.  Why  should  the  high 
school  give  a  large  place  to  the  sciences  which  throw 
light  upon  the  nature  and  function  of  the  body  and  fail 
to  complete  the  circle  of  knowledge  of  the  self  ?  Man  is 
not  a  physical  organism  merely,  but  a  psycho-physical 
organism.  To  know  the  facts  of  the  body  without  those 
of  the  mind  is  to  give  to  them  a  distorted  significance  just 
as  truly  as  is  the  case  with  mental  phenomena  studied 
without  reference  to  the  part  which  they  play  in  the  life 
and  activities  of  the  whole  organism.  Only  the  distor- 
tion is  worse  in  the  former  case  because  that  which  is 
most  characteristically  human,  that  on  which  the  superi- 


PSYCHOLOGY  451 

ority  of  man  over  the  rest  of  the  animal  series  depends, 
that  which  makes  possible  progress  and  civilization,  has 
been  omitted  from  consideration  in  the  training  of  youth. 

Psychology  has  at  least  one  very  strong  negative  value 
which  ought  not  to  be  ignored  in  our  day.  Among  the 
uninitiated  psychology  is  strangely  confused  with  freak 
treatises  on  suggestion,  hypnotism,  clairvoyance,  sub- 
conscious mind,  telepathy,  new  thought,  etc.  The  appe- 
tite which  the  popular  mind  has  for  this  sort  of  stuff  is 
simply  appalling.  The  average  person  among  the  un- 
instructed  cannot  easily  pick  out  the  kernel  of  truth  from 
the  wagon-load  of  chaff  that  is  confidently  offered  him  by 
the  charlatan  as  the  latest  and  most  authoritative  deliver- 
ance of  science.  There  is  a  real  need  that  schools  which 
reach  a  larger  number  of  people  than  the  colleges  offer 
instruction  in  the  great  fundamentals  of  scientific  psy- 
chology which  would  give  some  definite  point  of  view 
for  the  evaluation  of  discussions  in  the  marginal  fields 
of  the  subject  which,  while  exceedingly  fascinating,  are 
nevertheless  too  often  wholly  unscientific  or  at  best  only 
pseudo-scientific.  Such  instruction  would  save  the  warp- 
ing and  distorting  of  many  lives. 

Moral  and  Religious  Value. — Psychology  has  a  very 
positive  moral  and  religious  value.  Its  moral  value 
comes  in  part  through  the  revelation  of  the  intimate  in- 
terrelations of  all  parts  of  the  self,  especially  the  inter- 
play of  physical  and  mental  processes  with  those  which 
are  more  commonly  considered  moral.  An  intelligent 
grasp  of  the  part  played  by  these  physical  and  mental 
processes  in  the  determination  of  moral  conduct  helps 
one  to  apply  principles  of  control  to  the  realization  of 
moral  aims.  It  is  useful  to  know  that  when  the  isolated 
resolution  not  to  yield  to  some  specific  type  of  temptation 


452  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

fails  we  may  break  down  the  force  of  persistent  impulse 
by  bringing  to  bear  upon  it  a  whole  organized  sys- 
tem of  ideas  with  all  the  cumulative  force  of  the  impul- 
sive power  of  the  separate  elements  which  go  to  make  up 
the  complex.  The  importance  of  right  habits  both  of 
body  and  of  mind  is  more  powerfully  taught  by  James's 
chapter  on  "Habit"  than  by  volumes  of  sermons  from 
the  pulpit.  To  know  that  the  social  and  religious  im- 
pulses are  normal,  and  deeply  fundamental,  gives  poise 
and  balance  at  the  time  of  storm  and  stress  when  the 
adolescent  may  be  facing  the  necessity  of  reconstructing 
his  social  and  religious  conceptions.  If  he  has  a  grasp 
of  the  fundamental  elements  of  human  nature  he  cannot 
tolerate  any  reconstruction  of  his  life  which  narrows  and 
restricts  or  which  robs  him  of  the  full  rights  of  his  com- 
plete normal  personality.  Anchoring  to  the  moorings  of 
the  race  as  revealed  in  the  analysis  of  the  complete  self, 
tying  down  to  the  great  fundamental  values  which  the 
race  has  achieved  in  its  struggle  upward,  is  likely  to 
prove  the  salvation  of  the  individual.  There  is,  of  course, 
considerable  doubt  as  to  the  advisability  of  teaching  to 
adolescents  those  aspects  of  psychology  which  concern 
most  intimately  their  own  transition  stage  in  life.  The 
writer  is  personally  inclined  to  the  view  that  it  ought  to 
be  done;  but  if  it  is  to  be  done  it  ought  to  be  by  a  per- 
son of  maturity,  judgment,  and  strong  moral  personality. 
For  the  adolescent  to  know  some  of  the  peculiar  physical, 
mental,  and  emotional  symptoms  to  which  he  is  almost 
certain  to  be  subject  is  to  fortify  him  against  tempta- 
tion, morbidness,  and  undue  egotism.  Knowledge  of  his 
own  nature  and  the  factors  that  are  at  work  within  his 
life  gives  sanity,  poise,  and  self-control.  Also,  it  gives 
him  a  rational  basis  for  rejection  of  the  subtle  suggestions 


PSYCHOLOGY  453 

of  quack  physicians  who  make  it  their  business  to  prey 
upon  sensitive  and  innocent  youth. 

Knowledge  of  Mental  Processes  Important. — It  is  im- 
portant for  all  people,  and  for  the  student  in  particular, 
to  know  something  of  the  economy  of  mental  procedure, 
to  understand  the  physical  conditions  of  mental  work, 
and  to  be  familiar  with  the  fundamental  laws  of  psychic 
hygiene,  including  fatigue,  suggestion,  and  mental  ther- 
apy. One  ought  to  know  the  simple  principles  of  diet, 
rest,  exercise,  sleep,  recreation,  and  cheerfulness,  in  their 
relation  to  mental  power  and  efficiency. 

To  the  student,  psychology  has  a  special  value  in 
bringing  to  clear  consciousness  the  principles  of  observa- 
tion, memory,  attention,  association,  and  thinking,  upon 
which  he  can  build  a  rational  and  controlled  method  of 
study,  instead  of  following  a  random  and  chance  method. 
High  school  students  themselves  who  have  studied  psy- 
chology have  testified  to  this  value  of  the  subject  and 
have  said  that  they  wished  that  they  had  studied  it  earlier. 
To  learn  the  art  of  using  the  mind  to  best  advantage  is 
a  life  lesson  that  cannot  be  learned  too  soon. 

Text-Books  and  Other  Aids  to  Study. — Improvement  in 
text-books  and  in  methods  of  teaching  psychology  have 
made  it  much  more  suitable  for  students  of  the  high 
school.  The  older  texts,  dominated  by  philosophical  and 
theological  interests,  were  too  analytic  and  abstract.  The 
richer  development  of  the  subject  within  recent  years 
and  the  working  out  of  its  applications  to  every  phase 
of  life  makes  it  a  study  which  satisfies  a  very  wide  range 
of  adolescent  needs.  The  introduction  of  the  con- 
crete results  of  experimentation  and  the  added  em- 
phasis on  the  motor  element  have  greatly  enriched  the 
content  of  psychology  while  at  the  same  time  making 


454  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

it  more  concrete  and  teachable.  The  greater  concrete- 
ness  of  the  subject  and  its  greater  relevancy  to  the  ordi- 
nary needs  of  life  have  been  accentuated  by  the  tendency 
to  eliminate  from  elementary  texts,  or  else  to  minimize  the 
treatment  of,  those  topics  which  have  chiefly  a  propae- 
deutic value  for  philosophy.  In  most  of  our  books  dia- 
grams and  illustrations  are  used  freely,  particularly  in 
the  presentation  of  the  essential  facts  of  the  nervous 
system.  Photographic  reproductions  of  certain  aspects 
of  nerve  structure  abound,  and  models  and  charts  can 
be  secured  for  the  study  of  all  of  the  grosser  aspects  of 
the  nervous  system.  Slides  can  be  secured  for  the  micro- 
scopic study  of  minuter  details  or  for  projection  upon  the 
screen  with  the  lantern.  The  nature  and  function  of 
the  normal  human  consciousness  is  constantly  illumi- 
nated by  reference  to  the  results  of  the  study  of  the  ab- 
normal, the  exceptional,  the  primitive,  and  the  animal. 
The  adoption  of  the  evolutionary  point  of  view,  using 
as  the  central  and  fundamental  principle  that  of  adjust- 
ment, gives  the  story  element  necessary  to  sequence  and 
unity  of  topics.  From  this  point  of  view  the  parts  of 
the  subject  are  all  presented  not  as  mere  descriptive  and 
logical  distinctions,  but  in  dynamic,  functional,  and  or- 
ganic relations  to  one  another.  With  the  growth  of  the 
subject  of  psychology  in  scientific  character,  concreteness 
of  method,  and  richness  of  application  to  life,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  there  is  taking  place  a  gradual  change  in  the 
conception  of  its  educational  value  for  the  high  school. 

Choosing  Text-Books. — What  has  been  said  regarding 
improvement  in  text-books  and  in  methods  of  instruction 
in  general  ought  to  be  suggestive  as  to  the  right  course  of 
procedure  upon  the  part  of  the  high  school  teacher  of  the 
subject.  But  perhaps  something  ought  to  be  said  that 


PSYCHOLOGY  455 

deals  more  specifically  with  the  problem  of  teaching  psy- 
chology in  the  high  school.  With  regard  to  text-books, 
choose  them  not  with  reference  to  duplication  or  equiva- 
lence of  college  courses  in  the  subject.  Consider  first  of 
all  the  needs  of  high  school  pupils  and  the  adaptability 
of  the  text  to  the  awakening  in  the  pupil  of  a  vital  interest 
in  psychology.  Other  things  being  equal,  choose  books 
of  recent  authorship;  for  they  are  more  likely  to  con- 
tain the  results  of  the  most  recent  scholarship.  This  is 
very  important  because  psychology  is  a  rapidly  develop- 
ing subject.  Choose  books,  or  a  group  of  books,  for 
class-room  use  which  embody  the  enrichment  in  subject- 
matter  and  the  improvement  in  methods  which  have 
been  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph  as  character- 
istic of  the  past  few  years. 

Methods  of  Teaching. — Do  not  be  afraid  to  vary  the 
order  of  topics  from  that  of  the  text-book  used  if  in  doing 
so  you  can  find  a  more  vital  point  of  contact  with  the  in- 
terest and  experience  of  the  class.  Most  books  are  de- 
termined by  some  logical  principle  of  organization.  The 
logical  order,  however,  is  not  always  identical  with  the 
pedagogical.  The  student  is  often  thrust  into  the  study 
of  the  nervous  system  the  first  week  in  the  course,  before 
he  feels  any  need  of  a  knowledge  of  physiological  facts 
in  the  interpretation  and  explanation  of  mental  phenom- 
ena. Too  often  this  study  of  the  nervous  system  is 
merely  a  chapter  in  physiology,  without  any  selection  and 
emphasis  upon  the  facts  which  are  of  concern  in  the  study 
of  mind.  It  should  be  self-evident  that  the  chapter  on 
the  nervous  system  and  the  special  senses  ought  to  be  a 
chapter  in  psychology,  not  in  physiology.  This  it  can- 
not be  if  it  is  taken  up  too  early.  All  aspects  of  the 
mind  are  so  closely  interrelated  that  I  am  inclined  to 


456  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

think  that  theoretically  it  makes  little  difference  with 
what  topic  the  teacher  starts  the  course.  Problems  will 
inevitably  arise  which  lead  out  in  all  directions,  and  each 
discussion  will  clear  up  every  other.  Consequently,  I 
should  start  in  teaching  high  school  pupils,  or,  for  that 
matter,  elementary  students  in  normal  school  or  college, 
with  some  topic  which  is  central  in  mental  experience 
and  with  which  the  pupil  already  has  a  great  many  points 
of  contact  and  interest,  in  which  there  is,  in  other  words, 
a  great  deal  of  latent  material  which  does  not  have  to 
be  dug  out  of  books,  but  rather  out  of  the  fulness  of  the 
pupil's  own  experience.  Such  topics  are  memory,  asso- 
ciation, imagination,  habit,  methods  of  study,  etc.  While 
the  same  fundamental  importance  does  not  attach  to 
such  topics  as  dreams,  illusions,  hallucinations,  sugges- 
tion, hypnotism,  etc.,  the  natural  curiosity  of  most  peo- 
ple in  this  class  of  subjects  may  serve  as  a  source  of  vital 
interest  and  the  arousal  of  problems  which  do  lead  into 
the  heart  of  psychology.  Most  young  people  are  very 
much  interested  in  the  learning  processes  and  general 
intelligence  of  animals.  The  study  of  these  I  believe  to 
be  a  very  good  introduction  to  the  understanding  of  the 
learning  processes  of  human  beings  and  the  most  signifi- 
cant characteristics  of  human  consciousness.  In  class- 
room discussions  of  relatively  familiar  topics  without  the 
use  of  a  prescribed  text-book,  the  way  is  prepared  for  the 
right  use  of  the  book  as  a  means  of  enlarging  and  organiz- 
ing psychological  experiences  felt  to  be  inadequate  and 
unsatisfactory,  instead  of  using  it  as  a  substitute  for  ex- 
perience. All  the  way  through  the  subject,  simple  illus- 
trations requiring  analysis  of  the  psychical  elements  in- 
volved should  be  sought  and  used  abundantly.  I  refer 
to  such  material  as  the  following:  learning  to  swim,  to 


PSYCHOLOGY  457 

skate,  to  throw  at  a  mark;  the  nature  and  function  of 
the  various  mental  activities  involved  in  playing  basket- 
ball, in  boxing,  foot-ball,  etc.;  the  co-ordinations  of  sen- 
sory and  motor  processes  involved  in  riding  a  bicycle  and 
the  process  by  which  they  are  built  up;  the  psychological 
basis  of  familiar  proverbs  and  epigrams;  what  adver- 
tisements you  remember  and  why;  the  psychology  of  the 
displays  in  show  windows  of  the  stores  and  of  the  head- 
lines and  cartoons  of  newspapers;  the  explanation  of  the 
different  mental  attitudes  involved  in  being  well-dressed 
or  meanly  clad;  the  kinds  and  effects  of  imagery  in 
such  poems  as  Longfellow's  "The  Village  Blacksmith" 
and  Tennyson's  "Blow,  Bugle,  Blow";  study  of  the 
differences  in  imagery  in  different  classes  of  literature; 
differences  in  the  memorizing  of  poetry  and  prose,  with 
psychological  explanation,  etc.,  etc.  The  teaching  of 
psychology  in  the  high  school  may  well  be  supplemented 
and  vivified  by  the  use  of  simple  experiments.  The 
teacher  should  choose  kinds  of  experiments  that  can  be 
performed  with  as  little  apparatus  as  possible.  Many 
experiments  can  be  performed  without  any  special  ap- 
paratus or  with  such  as  almost  anybody  can  devise. 
Seashore's  "Elementary  Experiments  in  Psychology" 
and  Witmer's  "Analytic  Psychology"  in  the  hands  of 
the  teacher  will  furnish  a  reasonable  number  of  such  ex- 
periments from  which  to  select,  and  the  teacher  once 
started  on  the  right  track  can  devise  others  equally  as 
simple.  Personally,  I  would  give  less  attention  in  an  ele- 
mentary course  than  the  experimentalists  of  our  colleges 
are  inclined  to  do  to  the  experiments  in  the  field  of  sen- 
sation and  more  to  those  in  the  fields  of  memory,  atten- 
tion, apperception,  imagination,  simple  and  fundamental 
cases  of  suggestion,  the  learning  process  (both  motor  and 


458  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

mental),  and  other  aspects  of  the  higher  psychical  proc- 
esses. In  every  phase  of  the  subject  of  psychology,  care 
should  be  taken  to  bring  out  the  significance  and  func- 
tion of  the  various  conscious  processes  in  the  life  and 
activities  of  the  individual  and  to  show  the  intimate  in- 
terrelations and  interplay  of  these  conscious  processes 
with  one  another.1 

The  Future  of  the  Subject. — Whether  psychology  will 
work  its  way  into  the  curriculum  of  secondary  schools  as 
fully  as  is  justified  by  its  general  value,  is  a  question  that 
will  be  determined  by  a  variety  of  considerations.  One 
of  the  most  fundamental  difficulties  in  the  way  is  that  of 
securing  teachers  who  are  sufficiently  well  trained  in  the 
content  and  who  at  the  same  time  realize  the  essential  need 
of  adjusting  the  subject-matter  and  method  to  the  inter- 
ests of  life,  particularly  those  of  the  average  boy  and  girl 
of  high  school  age.  This  difficulty  will  be  in  part  over- 
come by  the  growing  demand  for  teachers  of  both  high 
academic  preparation  and  special  professional  training 
for  high  school  work.  With  the  growth  of  the  tendency 
in  the  special  departments  of  the  colleges  and  universi- 
ties to  consider  the  psychological  aspects  of  their  work, 
there  will  also  be  a  larger  number  of  teachers  trained  in 
history,  literature,  and  biology,  who  will  be  fairly  well 
qualified  to  conduct  a  class  in  psychology  in  the  smaller 
high  schools  which  cannot  employ  a  special  teacher  for 
the  subject.  Text-books  especially  adapted  to  the  use 
of  the  high  school  are  very  difficult  to  find;  but  with  the 
growth  of  interest  in  the  subject  of  psychology  in  the 
high  school  this  difficulty  is  likely  to  be  met  soon.  The 

'For  illustrations  of  this,  see  the  principle  applied  in  Angell's  "Psy- 
chology," Dewey's  "How  We  Think,"  or  Miller's  "Psychology  of  Think- 
ing." 


PSYCHOLOGY  459 

pressure  of  vocational  studies  for  admission  to  the  high 
school  curriculum  is  likely  in  many  places  to  occupy  the 
attention  of  school  officials  so  fully  as  to  exclude  interest 
in  the  claims  of  psychology.  With  the  growth  of  voca- 
tional work  in  the  high  school  there  will  be  created  a 
situation,  however,  that  will  call  more  imperiously  for 
the  inclusion  of  psychology  in  the  curriculum,  first  be- 
cause of  its  practical  value  in  relation  to  the  affairs  of 
life  which  this  very  vocational  demand  creates,  and  sec- 
ond, because  the  high  school  will  contain  an  even  larger 
number  of  pupils  proportionately  who  are  not  going  to 
college,  where  this  particular  need  would  be  satisfied. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that  while  this  discussion 
appears  to  be  a  plea  for  the  fuller  introduction  of  psychol- 
ogy into  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school,  the  writer 
would  not  like  to  be  construed  as  an  advocate  of  its 
indiscriminate  and  wholesale  introduction  into  the  sec- 
ondary school  curriculum.  It  better  not  be  taught  at  all 
than  'to  be  conducted  as  a  process  of  memorizing  certain 
cut-and-dried  principles  and  their  applications  to  teach- 
ing, and  this,  possibly,  from  a  text-book  that  is  inaccurate 
and  out  of  date. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

THEODORE  W.  KOCH,  A.M. 

HEAD    LIBRARIAN,    UNIVERSITY   OF   MICHIGAN 

Importance  of  Problem. — "  There  is  no  problem  relat- 
ing to  the  equipment  of  the  high  school  which  is  more 
pressing  than  that  of  the  library,"  said  a  recent  editorial 
writer  in  the  School  Review.  At  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  New  York  State  Library  Association,  in  1907,  Dr. 
Downing,  State  Commissioner  of  Education,  suggested 
that  some  special  study  be  given  to  the  question  of  high 
school  libraries  and  a  committee  was  later  appointed  to 
make  an  investigation  of  library  conditions  in  high  schools 
and  report  at  the  annual  meeting  in  September,  1909. 
A  questionnaire  was  sent  to  some  eighty-three  schools, 
but  only  a  few  of  the  replies  contained  more  than  the 
briefest  answers.  Twenty-five  out  of  the  fifty-two  libra- 
ries heard  from  were  in  charge  of  librarians  who  had 
some  library  experience  or  training.  Most  of  the  libra- 
rians had  been  appointed  to  high  school  positions  since 
1903.  The  first  appointment  of  a  high  school  librarian 
in  New  York  City  was  in  1900.  The  investigation  as  a 
whole  was  unsatisfactory,  inasmuch  as  the  high  schools 
reporting  were  not  representative  of  conditions  through- 
out the  State,  much  less  throughout  the  country  gener- 
ally, and  because  the  replies  left  much  unsaid  as  to  the 
actual  use  of  and  interest  in  these  libraries. 

460 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  461 

In  a  discussion  of  "The  difficulty  of  the  high  school 
library,"  1  Mr.  Edwin  White  Gaillard,  supervisor  of  work 
with  schools,  New  York  Public  Library,  claims  that  the 
problem  is  largely  one  of  money  and  deprecates  the  du- 
plication of  work  already  being  done  by  the  public 
library.  This  is  no  more  of  an  argument  against  high 
school  libraries  than  are  similar  objections  against  de- 
partmental libraries  in  a  university.  The  high  school 
library  is  for  a  special  kind  of  work — work  that  can  best 
be  done  in  the  school  building,  under  the  supervision  and 
guidance  of  one  familiar  with  the  special  needs  of  the 
student.  Mr.  Gaillard  grants  that  much,  of  course,  may 
be  learned  about  libraries  and  library  methods  in  the 
high  school  library,  but  claims  that  the  library  habit,  the 
habit  of  going  to  the  public  library  for  all  sorts  of  infor- 
mation, of  little  or  of  great  interest,  cannot  be  acquired 
from  the  high  school  library.  This  is  a  point  which  I  can- 
not concede.  University  librarians  are  familiar  with  a 
similar  argument  against  technical  departmental  libra- 
ries to  the  effect  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  make  the 
technical  student  feel  that  there  is  no  need  of  his  going 
to  the  University  Library,  that  the  departmental  library 
answers  all  his  needs.  Experience,  however,  proves 
that  to  have  these  students  use  any  library  you  must 
plant  it  right  in  their  midst.  So  with  the  high  school 
students:  give  them  a  good  library  in  their  own  school 
building  and  then  see  that  they  use  it  properly,  for  this  is 
a  part  of  modern  education. 

In  these  days  when  high  schools  are  extending  their 
work  in  so  many  directions  and  when  books  must  be 
provided  for  supplementary  work  in  English,  in  history, 
in  the  preparation  of  debates,  and  in  other  subjects,  a 

1  School  Review,  April,  1907,  vol.  XV,  pp.  245-250. 


462  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

well-equipped  library  is  a  necessity  in  the  modern  high 
school.  A  motley  array  of  old  text-books,  out-of-date 
encyclopaedias  and  miscellaneous  volumes  from  the  attics 
of  well-meaning  friends  of  the  institution  will  not  make 
a  good  high  school  library.  Upon  how  many  school  libra- 
ries in  this  country  can  former  pupils  look  back  as  did 
Burne- Jones  upon  the  little  school  library  at  Birming- 
ham, as  "that  blessed  institution  where  we  spent  many 
blissful  hours"?  The  failure  of  many  school  libraries 
is  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  care  and  fostering  attention 
after  they  have  been  established.  The  library  is  there 
out  of  deference  to  a  growing  public  sentiment  in  favor 
of  such  an  annex,  but  the  library  is  too  frequently  left 
to  run  itself,  or  the  responsibility  for  its  care  is  given  to 
some  teacher  already  overburdened  with  class-room  work. 
The  responsibility  ought  never  to  be  placed  on  the 
teachers,  or  at  least  not  on  one  who  is  doing  full  work 
as  a  teacher.  The  average  teacher,  if  given  charge  of  a 
school  library,  will  confine  her  efforts  to  seeing  that  the 
rules  are  obeyed,  that  books  are  brought  in  on  time,  and 
that  silence  and  order  are  preserved.  She  will  not  have 
time  or  energy  to  devote  to  the  building  up  of  the  library, 
to  instruct  the  pupils  in  its  use,  to  look  after  reference 
work  with  the  students,  nor  to  help  the  teachers  in  find- 
ing needed  material.  "  Disabuse  yourselves  of  the  notion 
that  it  is  teachers'  work,  and  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty  will 
be  found,"  says  a  recent  writer  in  the  Library  Journal.1 

The  school  library  differs  from  the  average  public 
library  in  that  it  is  usually  a  reference  library  first  and  a 
lending  library  only  so  far  as  the  use  of  its  books  outside 
the  building  does  not  conflict  with  the  usefulness  of  its 
service  to  the  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  school  building. 

1  Vol.  XXXIII,  p.  136. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  463 

Duties  of  the  Librarian. — The  first  duty  of  the  librarian 
is  to  make  the  books,  photographs,  and  other  posses- 
sions of  the  library  available  by  a  simple  and  acceptable 
system  of  classification  and  cataloguing.  After  this  has 
been  accomplished  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  these 
possessions  known  to  the  teachers  and  pupils.  This  can 
only  be  done  by  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  material 
and  trained  in  its  use.  If  the  reference  work  is  done  by 
an  untrained  worker  it  is  a  case  of  the  blind  leading  the 
blind.  A  teacher  with  no  training  in  library  methods 
will  not  go  to  another  teacher,  known  to  be  similarly 
deficient,  for  information  in  regard  to  books,  and  the 
pupils  will  get  comparatively  little  real  library  help  from 
one  who  is  primarily  a  class-room  teacher,  untrained  to 
meet  all  classes  of  readers  and  answer  a  great  variety 
of  questions. 

The  interested  librarian  will  be  on  the  lookout  for  any 
new  books  that  may  be  of  use  to  teachers  and  pupils; 
she  .will  try  to  keep  a  balance  in  the  matter  of  books  for 
the  various  departments  of  study,  to  inform  herself  on 
current  events  and,  in  short,  make  herself  as  useful  in 
all  lines  of  high  school  work  as  is  possible  with  the  time 
and  means  at  her  disposal. 

Assistance  for  the  Librarian. — As  the  work  of  the  library 
grows  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  librarian  to  have  assist- 
ance of  some  kind.  The  arrangement  for  this  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  circumstances  in  the  given  school. 
In  many  schools  student  assistants  are  employed.  In 
some  cases  boys  are  hired  at  a  small  sum  per  hour  to  give 
their  services  as  pages.  In  others  good  students  are 
allowed  to  volunteer  for  library  work,  giving  one  hour  a 
day  to  it.  They  enjoy  the  work  and  find  their  enlarged 
knowledge  of  the  library  very  useful.  In  some  schools 


464  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  librarian  is  assisted  by  a  member  of  the  teaching 
staff,  who  thus  becomes  familiar  with  the  library  and 
acquires  some  knowledge  of  reference  work  and  can 
assist  the  pupils  in  various  ways. 

Purposes  of  a  Library. — The  purposes  of  a  school 
library  should  be  not  only  to  provide  laboratory  material 
for  the  pupils'  work  in  literature  and  history,  to  enable 
the  teacher  to  instruct  them  in  the  use  of  books  as  sources 
of  information,  and  to  assist  the  teacher  in  other  ways, 
but  also  to  instil  in  the  pupils  an  interest  in  books  as 
books,  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  reading.  Too  many  high 
school  graduates  have  no  conception  of  a  book,  other  than 
fiction,  as  anything  but  a  task  or  a  text. 

The  high  school  library  should  not  try  to  compete  with 
the  public  library  if  there  is  one  in  the  same  town.  Lit- 
erature for  recreation  pure  and  simple  is  better  supplied 
by  the  public  library,  where  it  is  available  for  those  who 
are  both  below  and  above  the  high  school  age.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  there  is  nothing  to  interest  the  students 
by  its  innate  appeal,  if  everything  in  the  school  library 
suggests  lessons,  many  of  the  students  will  view  it  with 
suspicion,  and  avoid  it,  unless  sent  there  by  the  teactters. 

Teaching  the  Use  of  the  Library. — Most  pupils  when 
they  enter  the  high  school  are  ignorant  of  the  use  of  the 
simplest  and  most  common  reference  books.  They  do 
not  know  the  difference  between  a  table  of  contents  and 
an  index,  and  are  so  helpless  in  a  library  that  their  teachers 
hesitate  to  give  them  work  outside  their  text-books.  Even 
those  who  are  best  informed  can  be  helped  to  the  use  of 
books  which  will  be  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  them  in 
the  preparation  of  their  daily  lessons,  essays,  and  debates. 

Early  in  the  school  year  the  librarian  ought  to  meet 
the  new  students  and  explain  to  them  in  the  reading- 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  465 

room  the  grouping  of  the  books  and  the  fundamental 
principles  underlying  the  making  of  a  dictionary  card 
catalogue.  The  location  of  various  classes  of  reference 
books  should  be  pointed  out,  the  differences  between  a 
dictionary  and  an  encyclopaedia  explained,  and  the  vari- 
ous types  of  both  commented  upon.  The  pupils  should 
be  shown  how  to  use  "Poole's  Index"  and  the  "Reader's 
Guide  to  Periodical  Literature"  and  have  the  helpfulness 
of  these  aids  clearly  brought  home  to  them  by  concrete 
illustrations  in  connection  with  some  practical  theme  work 
or  preparation  for  a  debate.  If  this  initial  visit  to  the 
library  is  made  the  subject  of  a  required  paper  in  the 
English  course  the  benefits  are  doubled.  The  pupils  can 
be  assigned  problems  of  various  kinds  involving  the 
intelligent  use  of  tables  of  contents  and  indexes,  and 
familiarizing  themselves  with  a  variety  of  reference  books.1 
They  can  be  asked  to  fill  out  a  call  slip  from  the  reference 
in  the  card  catalogue,  take  the  volume  to  the  delivery 
desk,  have  it  charged  out,  return  it,  see  it  discharged 
and  put  back  in  its  regular  place  on  the  shelves. 

Library  Instruction. — The  library  instruction,  in  order 
to  be  of  real  benefit  to  the  pupils,  should  be  made  a  part 
of  the  school  curriculum  and  be  given  credit  the  same 
as  other  work.  In  most  schools  where  it  is  given  it  is 
counted  as  a  part  of  the  English  work.  In  the  high 
schools  of  Michigan  the  time  given  to  the  library  work 
varies  from  one  to  three  exercises  for  each  of  the  grades. 
The  instruction  is  given  in  the  form  of  lectures  or  infor- 
mal talks,  after  which  the  pupils  are  required  to  work  out 

1  For  some  problems  of  this  sort,  see  "  Modern  American  Library 
Economy,"  by  John  Cotton  Dana,  Part  V,  "The  School  Department, 
Section  2,''  "Course  of  Study  for  Normal  School  Pupils  on  the  Use  of  a 
Library,"  by  Marjory  L  Gilson. 


466  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

a  set  of  problems  on  reference  books.  This  work  is  done 
in  the  library  under  the  supervision  of  the  librarian. 
The  completed  exercises  are  in  some  schools  handed  in 
to  the  librarian  and  in  others  to  the  English  teacher, 
but  the  credit  is  usually  given  the  pupil  by  his  English 
teacher.  The  talks  are  arranged  to  suit  the  work  and 
needs  of  the  different  classes.  Those  for  the  ninth  grade 
pupils  ordinarily  include  instruction  in  the  use  of  diction- 
aries, encyclopaedias  and  atlases,  and  the  use  of  the  table 
of  contents  and  indexes  in  reference  books.  The  instruc- 
tion for  the  tenth  grade  takes  up  the  use  of  the  card  cata- 
logue, magazine  indexes,  year-books,  and  special  indexes. 
The  upper  classes  may  be  given  practice  work  in  compar- 
ing the  value  of  different  reference  books,  in  learning  to 
get  references  from  various  sources  not  on  the  reference 
shelves,  and  in  the  use  of  some  of  the  government  publi- 
cations. 

Library  Courses. — One  of  the  best  library  courses 
of  this  kind  is  that  conducted  by  the  librarian  of  the  De- 
troit Central  High  School,  where  the  work  is  graded  to 
correspond  with  the  regular  grading  of  the  English  courses 
in  that  school.  The  librarian  has  a  graded  series  of  library 
questions  which  are  among  the  best  illustrations  of  this 
kind  of  work  for  high  school  courses  available  in  print. 
We  give  specimens  from  the  various  series  as  follows: 

I.     i.  Consult  the  indexes  of  poems  by  Holmes,  and  give  the 
pages  on  which  you  find  the  following:     (a)  Poem  begin- 
ning, "Listen,  young  heroes!     Your  country  is  calling." 
(6)  Poem  entitled,  "Dorothy  Q." 
2.  Between  what  streets  in  our  city  does  870  Lafayette  Street 

come? 

II.  i.  Look  up  the  "Seven  Wonders  of  the  World"  in  two  differ- 
ent books.  Do  not  copy  them.  Name  the  books  in 
which  you  found  them. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  467 

2.  In  what  work  of  literature  does  the  "Old  Man  of  the  Sea" 

appear?     In  what  reference  book  did  you  find  it? 
HI.     i.  Find  the  allusion  to  "Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold"  in  two 

different  books.     In  what  books  did  you  find  it? 
2.  Use  the  card  catalogue  and  give  a  reference  for  the  life  of 

John  Greenleaf  Whittier. 
IV.     i.  (a)  Who  was  governor  of  Iowa  in  1906?    (6)  Where  was  he 

born? 
2.  (a)  Name  two  good  recent  encyclopaedias.     (6)  Name  two 

good  older  encyclopaedias. 
V.     i.  (a)  What  is  the  general  index  to  Government  publications? 

(b)  How  often  is  it  published? 

2.  (a)  What  is  the  Congressional  directory?    (6)  Examine  it 
and  name  any  one  reference  point  which  interested  you. 

(c)  What  is  the  Congressional  Record? 

VI.  Name  good  reference  books  under  the  following  heads:  (a) 
Classical  dictionary.  (6)  Gazetteer  of  the  world,  (c) 
Atlas  of  the  world,  (d)  Year-book  for  current  history. 

There  is  an  almost  endless  variety  of  questions  which 
can  be  put  to  the  students  to  bring  out  points  in  con- 
nection with  reference  books.  They  can  be  asked  to 
name  the  various  kinds  of  dictionaries  in  the  library,  to 
tell  which  is  the  latest  issue,  to  look  up  the  same  word  in 
each,  and  tell  the  differences  noted  in  the  treatment  of 
the  word  in  question.  See  whether  they  can  define  a  gaz- 
etteer, a  glossary,  and  a  concordance.  Ask  them  where 
they  would  go  to  find  a  picture  of  the  human  skeleton, 
or  colored  plates  of  coats  of  arms  and  flags  of  various 
nations.  See  whether  the  word  copyright  means  any- 
thing to  them. 

"The  position  of  a  modern  librarian  in  a  high  school," 
says  Principal  McAndrew,1  of  the  Washington  Irving 
High  School,  New  York,  "seems  to  me  like  that  of  a 

lln  an  address  before  the  library  section  of  the  National  Education 
Association,  Boston,  July  5,  1910. 


468  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

missionary  in  a  heathen  country.  No  one  but  a  librarian 
can  realize  what  an  astounding  amount  of  ignorance  we 
high  school  teachers  exhibit  regarding  the  purpose  and 
operation  of  a  library.  Time  and  again  in  my  library 
experience  I  have  observed  teachers  searching  through 
reference  books  who  were  too  poorly  trained  to  look  in 
the  table  of  contents  and  too  proud  to  ask  for  help."  A 
frank  confession  from  the  teacher  is  good  for  the  soul  of 
both  the  teacher  and  the  librarian.  Certainly  the  class- 
room teacher  must  inform  herself  more  thoroughly  on 
the  rudiments  of  library  methods  if  she  is  to  work  in  suc- 
cessful co-operation  with  the  school  librarian.  Normal 
schools  are  now  giving  instruction  in  library  economy. 
The  Oregon  Library  Commission  has  published  a  broad- 
side listing  under  forty-three  heads,  "Some  things  a 
teacher  should  know  about  books  and  libraries."  The 
list  has  been  reprinted  by  the  Michigan  State  Library 
Commission  with  slight  revision.  As  specimens  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  cited: 

1.  What  are  the  best  cyclopedias? 

2.  What  dictionaries  are  best  for  school  use  and  how  do  they 

differ? 

3.  What  books  can  you  consult  to  find  out  whether  certain  sub- 

scription sets  urged  upon  the  district  by  agents  have  any 
value? 

4.  What  is  the  best  printed  aid  to  the  formation  of  a  teacher's  pro- 

fessional library? 

5.  Where  will  you  find  annual  summaries  of  the  books  on  education, 

with  notes  as  to  their  value? 

6.  What  U.  S.  public  documents  would  be  of  value  to  you  in  your 

school  work  and  how  may  they  be  obtained? 

7.  What  are  the  best  printed  lists  of  books  for  children  and  how 

much  will  they  cost? 

8.  What  are  the  best  graded  lists  of  children's  books? 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  469 

9.  Where  can  you  get  notes  about  children's  books  that  will  be 
of  service  in  guiding  the  reading  of  the  children  in  your  grade? 

10.  What  are  the  best  books  for  reading  aloud  in  your  grade? 

11.  What  are  the  best  collections  of  poetry  for  children? 

12.  What  books  may  be  the  best  stepping-stones  for  the  boy  who  is 

a  slave  to  the  "nickel  library"  habit? 

13.  What  simple,  accurate,  scientific  books  will  you  give  to  the  boys 

who  are,  or  may  become,  interested  in  natural  science;  and 
what  will  you  choose  for  those  who  wish  to  identify  specimens 
of  insects,  of  minerals  and  rocks,  of  birds,  and  of  flowers? 

14.  If  you  do  not  know  about  these  books  how  will  you  inform  your- 

self? 

15.  What  are  some  of  the  best  biographies  for  children? 

16.  What  are  some  of  the  good  books  of  travel  for  use  in  geography 

work? 

17.  How  can  you  find  what  magazine  articles  have  been  written 

about  any  subject,  and  how  can  you  get  these  articles  for  the 
use  of  the  debating  society? 

1 8.  What  are  the  best  books  for  the  debating  society? 

19.  What  are  the  best  periodicals  for  children  ? 

20.  What  are  the  provisions  of  the  school  library  law  in  regard  to 

district-school  libraries? 

Value  of  Library  Instruction. — Such  library  instruc- 
tion as  has  been  described  is  of  great  help  to  teachers 
assigning  work  to  pupils  and  of  the  greatest  benefit  to 
the  pupils  themselves.  Without  it,  the  librarian,  teach- 
ers, and  pupils  are  handicapped  in  their  work  and  the 
library  fails  of  its  full  usefulness.  A  knowledge  of  how 
to  use  a  library  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  student 
not  only  through  his  high  school  course,  but  even  more 
so  in  college,  if  he  goes  that  far,  or  in  continuing  his 
reading  and  .self-culture  through  the  means  of  the  public 
library  when  he  discontinues  his  academic  career.  To 
be  able  to  use  books  effectively,  to  know  where  to  find 
exact  information  when  wanted,  is  a  kind  of  knowledge 


470  HIGH  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

that  comes  from  familiarity  with  reference  books  and 
the  use  of  books  as  sources.  Such  an  acquaintance  with 
books  is  of  infinitely  more  value  in  later  life  than  know- 
ing a  few  text-books  from  cover  to  cover.  The  place  in 
which  to  lay  the  foundation  for  this  proper  and  intimate 
acquaintance  with  books  as  tools  is  in  the  school  library 
and  the  period  is  that  of  the  high  school  age. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  DISCIPLINARY  BASIS  OF   COURSES  OF   STUDY 

By  reading  the  references  below  one  may  follow  critically  subse- 
quent experimental  investigations  which  will  deal  with  the  question 
from  the  school's  point  of  view  and  in  a  school  environment. 

Angell,  J.  R. — "Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline  in  the  Light  of 
the  Principles  of  General  Psychology."  Educational  Review, 
June,  1908. 

Bagley,  W.  C.— "Educative  Process,"  chap.  XIII.  $1.25,  Mac- 
millan. 

Bair,  J.  H. — "The  Practice  Curve."  Columbia  University  Contri- 
butions to  Philosophy,  Psychology  and  Education,  vol.  IX. 

Colvin,  S.  S. — "Some  Facts  in  Partial  Justification  of  the  So-called 
Dogma  of  Formal  Discipline."  Bulletin  of  University  of 
'  Illinois,  vol.  VII,  no.  XXVI. 

Colvin,  S.  S. — "The  Learning  Process."     $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Delabarre  and  Henderson. — Articles  in  Education,  May,  1909. 

Ebert  and  Neumann. — "Ueber  einige  Grundfragen  der  Psychologic 
der  Ubungsphanomene  im  Bereiche  des  Gedachtnisses." 
Arch.  /.  d.  gesamte  Psychol.,  vol.  IV. 

Fracker,  G.  C. — "The  Transfer  of  Training  in  Memory."  Psycho- 
logical Review,  Mon.  Supplements,  vol.  IX,  no.  II. 

Heck,  W.  H. — "Mental  Discipline  and  Educational  Values."  Sec- 
ond edition,  revised,  1911.  $1.00,  Lane. 

Henderson,  E.  N. — "Principles  of  Education."    $1.75,  Macmillan. 

James,  William. — "Principles  of  Psychology,"  vol.  I,  p.  667. 
2  vols.,  $4.80,  Holt. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  and  Pillsbury,  W.  B. — Articles  in  Educational  Review, 
June,  1908. 

*The  authors  have  independently  adopted  systems  of  references  to 
periodicals,  some  preferring  to  emphasize  date  of  publication,  others, 
number  of  pages,  etc, 

471 


472  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

O'Shea,  M.  V.— "Education  as  Adjustment,"  chaps.  XIII  and  XIV. 
$1.50,  Longmans. 

Rietz  and  Shade. — "Correlation  of  Efficiency  in  Mathematics  and 
Efficiency  in  Other  Subjects."  Bulletin  of  University  of 
Illinois.  .Vol.  VI,  no.  X. 

Ruediger,  W.  C. — "Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  VI.  $1.25, 
Houghton. 

Scripture,  E.  W. — "The  Education  of  Muscular  Control  and 
Power,"  "Studies  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,"  vol.  II, 
pp.  105-144. 

Seashore  and  Jenner. — "Training  the  Voice  by  Aid  of  the  Eye  in 
Singing."  Journal  oj  Educational  Psychology,  June,  1910. 

Shorey,  P. — "A  Symposium  on  the  Value  of  Humanistic,  Particularly 
Classical  Studies;  the  Classics  and  the  New  Education." 
School  Review,  Nov.,  1910. 

Swift,  E.  J—  "Mind  in  the  Making."     $1.50,  Scribner. 

Thorndike,  E.  L  —  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  XV.  $1.25, 
Seiler. 

Thorndike  and  Woodward. — "Influence  of  Improvement  in  One 
Mental  Function  Upon  the  Efficiency  of  Other  Mental  Func- 
tions." Psychological  Review,  vol.  VIII,  pp.  247,  348,  553. 

Whipple,  G.  M. — "Effect  of  Practice  upon  the  Range  of  Visual 
Attention  and  of  Visual  Apprehension."  Journal  oj  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  May,  1910. 

Winch,  W.  H. — "Accuracy  in  School  Children.  Does  Improve- 
ment in  Numerical  Accuracy  Transfer?"  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  Dec.,  1910. 

Winch,  W.  H. — "The  Transfer  of  Improvement  in  Memory  in  School 
Children."  British  Journal  0}  Psychology,  vol.  II,  p.  284. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORY  OF  SECONDARY  CURRICULUMS  SINCE  THE  RENAISSANCE 

Adams,  G.  B. — "Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages."    $2.50, 

Scribner. 
Brown,  E.  E.— "The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools."    $2.50, 

Longmans. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  473 

Clarke,  G. — "Education  of  Children  at  Rome."    Macmillan. 
Cubberley,    E. — "Changing    Conceptions    of    Education."     $.35, 

Houghton. 
Davidson,   Thomas. — "Education  of  the  Greek  People."     $1.50, 

Appleton. 

Davidson,  Thomas. — "A  History  of  Education."     $1.00,  Scribner. 
Davidson,  Thomas. — "Rousseau  and  Education  According  to  Nat- 
ure."    $1.00,  Scribner. 

Farrar,  F.  W. — "Essays  on  a  Liberal  Education."     Macmillan. 
Farrington,    F.    E. — "Secondary    Education    in    France."     $2.50, 

Longmans. 
Klemm  and  Hughes. — "Progress  of  Education  in  the  Nineteenth 

Century."     $2.25,  Bradley-Garretson  Co. 

Laurie,  S.  S. — "History  of  Educational  Opinion  from  the  Renais- 
sance."    $1.50,  Cambridge  University  Press. 
Laurie,  S.  S. — "Rise  and  Constitution  of  the  Early  Universities." 

$1.50,  Appleton. 
Monroe,  Paul. — "Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education."     $1.00, 

Macmillan. 
Paulsen,    F. — "German    Education    Past   and    Present."    $1.25, 

Scribner. 

Russell,  J.  E. — "German  Higher  Schools."     $2.50,  Longmans. 
Walden,  J.  W.  H.— "The  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece."     $1.50, 

Scribner. 
Watson,  Foster. — "The  English  Grammar  School  to  1660."    $2.00, 

Cambridge  University  Press. 
West,  A.  F. — "  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  the  Christian  Schools."     $1.00, 

Scribner. 
Woodward,  W.   H. — "Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  Other  Humanistic 

Educators."    $1.60,  Cambridge  University  Press. 
Youmans,  E.  L. — "Culture  Demanded  by  Modern  Life."    $2.00, 

Appleton. 


474  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  IV 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PLANS  FOR  REORGANIZING  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Boynton,  F.  D.— "A  Six- Year  High  School  Course."    Educational 

Review,  20  :  515-19,  Dec.,  1900. 
Brown,  J.  Stanley. — "Development  of  Secondary  Schools  According 

to  the  Proposed  Plan."    School  Review,   13  :  15-18,   Jan., 

1905. 

Brown,  J.  Stanley.— "  Joliet  Township  High  School."     School  Re- 
view, 9  :  417-32,  Sept.,  1901. 
Brubacher,  A.  R. — "Some  Readjustments  in  Secondary  Education." 

Education,  24  :  613-20,  June,  1904. 
Bunker,  Frank  F. — "The  Reorganization  of  the  Schools  of  Berkeley 

— A  Plan."    Pamphlet  No.  2,  Board  of  Education,  Berkeley, 

Cal. 
City  Club  of  New  York. — "A  Suggested  Readjustment  of  the  Years 

of  the  Public  School."    Jacob  W.  Mack,  Chairman,  Commit- 
tee on  Schools. 
Commercial  Club  of  Minneapolis. — "A  Plan  for  the  Rearrangement 

of  the  Public  School  System."     Proposed  by  the  Educational 

Committee. 
DeGarmo,  Charles. — "Principles  of  Secondary  Education."  p.  20. 

$3.00,  Macmillan. 
Dewey,  John. — "The  High  School  of  the  Future."     School  Review. 

1903,  p.  i.     Discussion,  pp.  17-22. 
Draper,  A.  S. — "Annual  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  of 

State  of  New  York,  1908  and  1909." 
Hall,  G.  Stanley.— "Adolescence."    $7.50,  Appleton. 
Han  us,   P.   H. — "Six- Year  High   School  Program."    Educational 

Review,  25  :  455-63,  May,  1903.     Also  in  "Modern  School," 

pp.  99  ff. 
Harper,  W.  R.— "The  High  School  of  the  Future."    School  Review, 

ii  :  1-3,  Jan.,  1903. 
Hedgepeth,  V.  W.  B.— "  Six- Year  High  School  Plan  at  Goshen, 

Indiana."    School  Review,  13  :  19-23,  Jan.,  1905. 
Liddeke,  F.— "Extension  of  the  High  School  Course."    School  Re- 
view, 12  :  635-47,  Oct.,  1904. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  475 

Lyttle,  E.  W.— "Should  the  Twelve-Year  Course  of  Study  be  equally 
divided  between  the  Elementary  School  and  the  Secondary 
School?"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1904,  p.  428.  Discussion,  p.  436. 

Lyttle,  E.  W.,  et  al. — "Report  of  the  Committee  on  Six- Year  Course 
of  Study."  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1908,  p.  625. 

Morrison,  G.  B. — "Report  of  Committee  on  Equal  Division  of 
Twelve  Years  in  Public  Schools  between  the  District  and  the 
High  School."  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1907,  p.  705.  See  also  Re- 
ports in  Proc.  N.  E.  A.  since  1907. 

Snedden,  D.  S.— "Six-Year  High  School  Course."  Educational 
Review,  pp.  525-29,  Dec.,  1903. 

Whitney,  F.  P. — "Differentiation  of  Courses  in  the  Seventh  and 
Eighth  Grades."  Educational  Review,  pp.  127-34,  Feb.,  1911. 

CHAPTER  V 
INSTRUCTION:  ITS  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL 

NOTE. — The  material  bearing  on  the  general  subject-matter  of 
this  chapter,  to  be  found  in  the  recent  literature  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, is  very  extensive.  The  following  brief  bibliography  is  merely 
intended  to  indicate  the  types  of  discussion.  For  detailed  study, 
the  student  should  consult  the  files  of  the  School  Review,  and  the 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (Department  of 
Secondary  Education),  especially  the  fiftieth  anniversary  volume 
(1906).  A  considerable  portion  of  the  literature  of  vocational  edu- 
cation relates  to  the  reorganization  of  secondary  instruction.  Con- 
sult also  the  several  bibliographies  of  education  prepared  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Armstrong,  J.  E.— "The  Advantages  of  Limited  Sex  Segregation  in 
the  High  School."  School  Review,  18  :  339-50. 

Bolton,  F.  E.— "The  Preparation  of  High  School  Teachers:  What 
They  Receive  and  What  They  Should  Receive."  School  Re- 
view, 15  :  97-122. 

Book,  W.  F.— "The  High  School  Teacher  from  the  Pupil's  Point  of 
View."  Pedagogical  Seminar,  12  :  239. 

Brooks,  S.  D.— "The  Extension  of  High  School  Influence."  Edu- 
cational Review,  29  :  433. 


476  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brown,  E.  E.— "The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools."  $3.00, 
Longmans. 

Chancellor,  W.  E. — "A  Theory  of  Motives,  Ideals,  and  Values  in 
Education."  $1.75,  Houghton. 

Chancellor,  W.  E. — "Our  Schools:  Their  Administration  and  Su- 
pervision," chaps.  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  XI,  XIV.  $1.50,  Heath. 

DeGarmo,  Charles. — "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"  3  vols. 
$3.00,  Macmillan. 

Dewey,  J. — "Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education."  $.25,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press. 

Button  and  Snedden. — "Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the 
United  States,"  chaps.  XI,  XII,  XIII,  XX. 

Elliott,  E.  C.,  and  others — "The  Education  and  Training  of  Second- 
ary School  Teachers."  Fourth  Year  Book,  Nat.  Soc.  for 
Sci.  Study  of  Ed.,  Chicago,  1905. 

Gunnison,  W.  B.— "Should  the  Entire  Time  of  the  High  School 
Principal  Be  Given  to  Administration?"  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
1905  :  452. 

Hall,  G.  S.— "The  High  School  as  the  People's  College."  Peda- 
gogical Seminar,  9  :  63. 

Hanus,  P.  H. — "A  Modern  School."    $1.25,  Macmillan. 

Hollister,  H.  A.— "High  School  Administration."     $1.50,  Heath. 

Jardon,  D.  S. — "The  High  School  Course.  Educational  Review, 
36  :  372-76. 

Luckey,  G.  W.  A. — "Professional  Training  of  Secondary  School 
Teachers  in  the  United  States."  N.  Y.  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Press,  1003. 

National  Education  Association. — "Report  of  the  Committee  of 
Seventeen  on  the  Professional  Preparation  of  High  School 
Teachers."  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1007  : 523-668. 

Nightingale,  A.  F. — "Rigid  vs.  Elastic  Courses."  School  Review, 
6  :  301. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.— "Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,"  chaps.  XIV,  XV. 
$1.25,  Macmillan. 

Palmer,  G.  H.— "The  Ideal  Teacher."     $.35,  Houghton. 

Richardson,  M.  W. — "Making  a  High  School  Programme."  School 
Review,  17  : 449-66. 

Ruediger,  W.  M. — "Principles  of  Education,"  chaps.  Ill  and  IV. 
$1.25,  Houghton. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  477 

Sachs,  J. — "The  Departmental  Organization  of  Secondary  Schools." 

Education,  27  :  484-96. 
Shorey,  P. — "Discipline  vs.  Dissipation  in  Secondary  Education." 

School  Review,  5  :  217. 
Tetlow,  J.— "The  High  School  Principal,  His  Rights,  Duties,  and 

Opportunities."    Educational  Review,  17  :  227. 
Thorndike,  E.  L. — "A  Neglected  Aspect  of  the  American  High 

School."    Educational  Review,  33  :  245-55. 

Vest,  E.  J. — "Text-Books  and  Public  Schools."    Education,  21  :  27. 
Vincent,  G.  E.— "Social  Mind  and  Education,"  pp.  91-113.    $1.25, 

Macmillan. 
Young,  E.  F.— "The  Public  High  School."   School  Review,  18  :  73- 

83- 

CHAPTER  VI 

MATHEMATICS 

For  high  school  libraries: 

Ball,  W.  W.  R.— "Mathematical  Recreations  and  Problems."  $2.25, 
Macmillan. 

Ball,  W.  W.  R.— "Short  Account  of  the  History  of  Mathematics." 
$3.25,  Macmillan. 

Cajori,  F. — "History  of  Elementary  Mathematics."  $1.50,  Mac- 
millan. 

Chrystal,  G.— "Algebra,"  vols.  I  and  II.    A.  and  C.  Black,  London. 

Smith,  D.  E.— "Teaching  of  Elementary  Geometry."    Ginn. 

Smith,  D.  E. — "The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics."  $1.00, 
Macmillan. 

Stamper,  A.  V.  W. — "A  History  of  the  Teaching  of  Elementary 
Geometry."  Teachers  College. 

Tannery. — "Notions  de  Mathe*matique."    Paris. 

Tropfke.— "Geschichte  der  Elementar  Mathematik."  Veit  Co., 
Leipzig. 

Weber  and  Wellstein. — "Encyklopadie  der  Elementar-Mathematik," 
3  vols.  Teubner. 

Young,  J.  W.  A.— "The  Teaching  of  Mathematics."  $1.50,  Long- 
mans. 

Young,  J.  W.  A. — "Mathematical  Monographs."    Longmans. 


478  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Young,  J.  W. — "Fundamental  Concepts  of  Algebra  and  Geometry." 

German,  French,  and  English  Elementary  Text-Books,  including 

those  by  Emile  Borel. 
School  Science  and  Mathematics.    $2.00  per  year,  Chicago,  111. 

Additional  references: 
Dintzl,  E. — "Der  mathematischen  Unterricht  an  den  Gymnasien." 

Austria. 

Gutzmer. — "Die  Tatigkeit  der  Unterrichtskommission."    Teubner. 
Hofler,     Alois. — "Didaktik     des     mathematischen     Unterrichts." 

Teubner. 
Klein. — "Elementarmathematik  vom  hoheren  Standpunkte  aus,"  2 

vols.,  Teubner;    and  numerous  works  on  the  teaching  of 

mathematics  (German). 
Simon,  Max. — "Didaktik  und  Methodik  des  Rechnens  und  der 

Mathematik." 
Tannery,   Painleve",    Picard,   et   al. — "De   la   Methode   dans   les 

Sciences."    Felix  Alcan,  Paris,  1909. 

Lists  of  real  problems  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics. 

Numerous  articles  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  in  the  Zeit- 
schrijt,  fur  mathematischen  und  naturwissenschajtlichen  Unter- 
richt and  in  V Enseignement  Mathematique. 

Series  published  by  Teubner  under  general  title,  "Abhandlungen 
iiber  den  mathematischen  Unterricht  in  Deutschland." 

"Mathematics  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  the  United  States," 
Bulletin  No.  13,  1911,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

"Mathematics  in  the  Public  and  Private  Schools  of  the  United 
States,"  Bulletin  No.  16,  1911,  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education. 

CHAPTER  VH 

PHYSICS 

Articles  on  the  teaching  of  physics  in  high  schools: 
Birdseye,  C.  F. — "The  Work  of  the  Higher  Education  Association." 

Science,  31,  721,  1910. 
Ferry,  F.  C.  (as  Secretary -Treasurer  of  the  Committee). — "The 

National  Conference  Committee  on  Standards  of  Colleges 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  479 

and  Secondary  Schools."  Science,  30,  590,  1909.  An  ac- 
count of  the  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  committee  in  1909, 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  contains  the  committee's  definition  of 
the  secondary  school  unit.  Contains  also  the  names  of  the 
committee  members  as  delegates  from  various  educational 
associations. 

Guthe,  K.  E. — "Some  Reforms  Needed  in  the  Teaching  of  Physics." 
Science,  31,  i,  1910.  A  discussion  of  the  problems  to  be 
solved  in  the  training  of  teachers  in  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. 

Hall,  E.  H.— "The  Teaching  of  Physics  in  the  Secondary  School." 
Part  of  the  volume  by  A.  Smith  and  E.  H.  Hall  on  "The 
Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  in  the  Secondary  School." 
$1.50,  Longmans. 

Hall,  E.  H. — "Relations  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  in  Re- 
spect to  Physics."  Science,  30,  578,  1909.  Gives  an  account 
of  the  development  of  the  present  definitions  of  the  physics 
unit  for  the  high  school. 

Hall,  E.  H.— "The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Physics."  Science,  32, 
129,  1910.  A  statistical  study  of  ideas  and  usages  of  many 
teachers  (geographically  well  distributed)  as  to  the  teaching 
of  physics  in  high  schools. 

Mann,  C.  R.— "The  Physics  Teacher's  Problem."  Science,  29, 
951,  1909. 

Mann,  C.  R. — "Physics  Teaching  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of 
America."  Science,  30,  789,  1909. 

Mann,  C.  R. — "The  Interpretation  of  the  College  Entrance  Board's 
New  Definition  of  the  Requirement  in  Physics."  Educa- 
tional Review,  31,  1909. 

Mann,  C.  R. — "Physics  and  Education."    Science,  32,  i,  1910. 

Millikan,  R.  A.— "Relation  of  High  School  and  College  Physics." 
Separate:  Address  Before  the  Eastern  Association  of  Phys- 
ics Teachers,  Boston,  Mass.,  1908. 

Packard,  J.  C. — "High  School  Physics."    Education,  30,  512,  1910. 

Shedd,  J.  C. — "The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Physics."  Science,  32, 
376,  1910.  A  discussion  of  Hail's  paper  in  Science,  32,  129, 
1910. 

Spencer,  Herbert. — "Educational,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physi- 
cal," 1860-1.  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth? 


480  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Terry,  H.  L. — "Four  Instruments  of  Confusion  in  Teaching  Phys- 
ics." Science,  31,  731,  1910. 

Woodhull,  J.  F. — "What  Specialization  has  Done  for  Physics  Teach- 
ing." Science,  31,  729,  1910. 

High  School  Teachers'  Association,  New  York  City. — "Articulation 
of  High  School  and  College."  Pamphlet,  Nov.,  1910. 

"The  New  Movement  among  Physics  Teachers."  School  Science 
and  Mathematics,  8,  1908.  Contains  the  North  Central  As- 
sociation's definition  of  the  unit  in  physics. 

"Definition  of  Requirements  in  Elementary  Physics."  A  statement 
concerning  the  appointment,  by  the  College  Entrance  Exam- 
ination Board,  of  a  committee  of  six  secondary  school  teachers 
of  physics;  the  definition  and  syllabus  of  the  course  as 
drawn  up  by  this  committee  and  adopted  by  the  board. 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  9,  572,  1909. 

Books  for  reference: 

Cajori,  F. — "A  History  of  Physics."    $1.60,  Macmillan. 

Cox,  J. — "Mechanics."    The  University  Press,  Cambridge,  Eng. 

Edser,  E. — "Heat  for  Advanced  Students."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 

Edser,  E.— "Light  for  Students."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Hastings,  Charles.— "Light."     $2.00,  Scribner. 

Kaye  and  Laby. — "Physical  and  Chemical  Constants."  $1.50, 
Longmans. 

Mach,  E. — "Die  Mechanik  in  ihrer  Entwickelung  historisch-kritisch 
dargestellt."  Brockhaus,  Leipzig.  Translated  (The  Science 
of  Mechanics)  by  T.  J.  McCormack,  Open  Court  Publishing 
Company. 

Mach,  E. — "Die  Principien  der  Warmelehre."    Barth,  Leipzig. 

The  science  of  Physics  needs  badly  a  series  of  works  which  shall  do 
for  its  other  subdivisions  what  these  two  books,  last  named, 
have  done  for  their  respective  fields.  The  high  school  student 
should  be  encouraged  especially  to  read  those  parts  of  Mach's 
"Mechanics"  which  deal  with  the  achievements  of  Galileo 
and  of  Newton.  I  have  already  referred  to  the  desirability  of 
the  teacher's  reading  the  section  on  the  economy  of  science. 

Poincare"  and  Vreeland. — "Maxwell's  Theory  and  Wireless  Teleg- 
raphy." $2.00,  McGraw  Publishing  Co. 

Smithsonian  Physical  Tables. — The  Smithsonian  Institution. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  481 

Thompson,  S.  P.— "Light  Visible  and  Invisible."    $1.50,  Mac 
millan. 

Thompson,  S.  P. — "Elementary  Lessons  in  Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism."    $1.40,  Macmillan. 

Thomson,  J.  J. — "Electricity  and  Matter."     $1.25,  Scribner. 

Thomson,  J.  J. — "The  Corpuscular  Theory  of  Matter."     $2.00, 
Scribner. 

Thomson,  J.  J. — "The  Discharge  of  Electricity  through  Gases." 
$1.00,  Scribner. 

Watson,  W.— "A  Text-Book  of  Physics."    $3.50,  Longmans. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CHEMISTRY 

Articles  on  chemistry  in  high  schools: 
Allen,    Charles    R. — "Conditions    and    Equipment    in    Secondary 

Schools."    School  Science  and  Mathematics,  599-604,  Sept., 

1910. 
Allen,  J.  H.— "The  Value  of  Chemistry  as  a  High  School  Subject." 

School  Science  and  Mathematics,    721-31,    788-800,   Nov., 

Dec.,  1910. 
Baker,  M.  S.— "How  Much  Chemical  Theory  Shall  be  Taught  in 

the  High  School  and  How  Shall  It  be  Presented?"    School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  273-83,  April,  1906. 
Blan chard,   Arthur  A. — "Elementary    Chemistry   Teaching  as   a 

Means  of  Developing  the  Power  of  Independent  Scientific 

Reasoning."    School  Science  and  Mathematics,  382-87,  May, 

1910. 
Bush,  George  C. — "The  Value  and  Limitations  of  Quantitative 

Work  in  Physics  and  Chemistry."     In  National  Education 

Association.     Journal  oj  Proceedings  and  Addresses,   1907, 

pp.  684-86. 
Clarke,  Frank  W. — "A  Report  on  the  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and 

Physics  in   the  United  States."     Washington,   Government 

Printing  Office,  1881.     United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Circular  of  Information,  1880,  No.  6.     The  above  contains  a 

list  of  text-books  relating  to  chemistry  and  physics,  pp.  157-66- 


482  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Curtman,  Louis  J. — "A  System  for  the  Preparation  of  Qualitative 
Unknowns."  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  513-17,  June, 
1910. 

Dennis,  L.  M.,  and  others. — "What  of  Chemistry  Shall  Be  Taught 
in  the  High  School  and  How  Shall  It  Be  most  Effectively 
Taught?"  In  New  York  (State)  Associated  Academic  Prin- 
cipals, Proceedings,  1902,  pp.  439-54. 

Dubois,  N.  A. — "Practical  Technical  Chemistry  in  Our  Schools." 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  294-99,  April,  1910.  Read 
before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  Central  Association  of 
Science  and  Mathematics  Teachers  in  Chicago,  Nov.  26, 1909. 

Geer,  William  C. — "The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  in  the  Secondary 
Schools:  A  Study  of  Recent  Practice  and  Results."  In  New 
York  State  Science  Teachers'  Association,  Proceedings,  1905, 
pp.  45-59.  New  York  State  Education  Department.  Sec- 
ondary education.  Bulletin  No.  81.  School  Review,  275, 
April,  1906. 

Hutchins,  E.  B. — "How  May  Instruction  in  Elementary  Chemistry 
Be  Made  More  Efficient  ?  "  In  Central  Association  of  Science 
and  Mathematics  Teachers,  Proceedings,  1908,  pp.  56-64. 
Also  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  252-60,  Mar.,  1909. 

James,  Gwendoline. — "The  Teaching  of  Physics  and  Chemistry  in 
American  Secondary  Schools"  (Northeastern  Division  of  the 
United  States).  Oswestry,  Woodall,  Minshall,  Thomas  & 
Co.,  1907. 

Mead,  G.  H.— "Science  in  the  High  School."  School  Review, 
237,  April,  1906. 

New  York  (State)  Education  Department. — Advance  Sheets  of 
Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools,  1910.  Physical  Science. 
Albany,  New  York  State  Education  Department,  1910. 
51  pp.  Chemistry,  pp.  28-51. 

Peters,  Fredus  N. — "What  and  How  Much  in  High  School  Chemis- 
try?" School  Science  and  Mathematics,  107-15,  Feb.,  1908. 

Richards,  T.  W. — "The  Value  of  Investigation  to  the  Teacher  of 
Chemistry."  In  New  England  Association  of  Chemistry 
Teachers,  Report,  1909,  pp.  18-34. 

Schock,    E.    P.,   and  others. — "Symposium   on   the   Purpose  and   ' 
Organization  of  Chemistry  Teaching  in  Secondary  Schools." 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  May  to  Nov.,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  483 

Smith,  Albert  L. — "Conditions  under  Which  the  Teacher  of  Chem- 
istry in  High  Schools  is  Working."  School  Science  and  Math- 
ematics, 237-40,  Mar.,  1910. 

Smith,  Alexander,  and  Hall,  Edwin  H. — "The  Teaching  of  Chem- 
istry and  Physics  in  the  Secondary  Schools."  $1.50,  Long- 
mans. 

Sohon,  Michael  D. — "Chemistry  in  Secondary  Schools."    Science, 

979~83>  June  24,  i910- 
Sohon,  Michael  D. — "The  First  Course  in  Chemistry."    School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  605-11,  Sept.,  1910. 
Symposium  on  the  Teaching  of  Chemistry  to  Beginning  Students. 

School  Science,  144-61,  June,  1903. 
Talbot,  H.  P.— "The  Outlook  for  a  Better  Correlation  of  Secondary 

School   and   College   Instruction   in   Chemistry."    Science, 

961-74,  June  24,  1910. 

Wade,  Frank  B. — "The  Purpose  and  Method  of  the  Chemistry 
I          Course  in   the   Public  High  School."    School  Science  and 

Mathematics,  299-303,  April,  1910. 
Welter,  J.  L. — "Chemistry  in  the  High  School."    Pennsylvania 

School  Journal,  338-40,  Feb.,  1908. 
Whitsit,  Jesse  E.— "High  School  Chemistry:   The  Content  of  the 

Course."    Science,  974-79,  June  24,  1910. 
Woodhull,  John  F. — "Modern  Trend  of  Physics  and  Chemistry 

Teaching."     New   York,   Educational   Review  Publishing 

Co.,   1906,  pp.   236-47.    Reprinted  from  the  Educational 

Review,   New  York,  Mar.,   1906.    Also  in  Schoolmasters' 

Association  of  New  York  and  Vicinity,   Report,  1905-6, 

pp.  48-59. 
Woodhull,  John  F. — "Science  for  Culture."    School  Review,  123, 

Feb.,  1907. 
Woodhull,    John   F.,  and   others. — "The   Teaching    of    Physical 

Science."     Teachers  College  Record,  u  :  i,  1910. 
Works,  G.  A.— "A  High  School  Course  in  Applied  Chemistry." 

School  Review,  560,  Oct.,  1910. 

"College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  Document  44,"  1909. 
"Report  of  Committee  of  Nine,  University  of  the  State  of  New 

York."    High  School  Bulletin,  No.  7,  1900. 
"Requirements  in  Chemistry  for  Entrance  to  Harvard  College  and 

the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,"  1900. 


484  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books  for  the  high  school  library: 

Bailey,  E.  H.  S.— "Text-Book  of  Sanitary  and  Applied  Chemistry." 
$1.40,  Macmillan. 

Chittenden,  R.  H.— "Studies  in  Physiological  Chemistry."  $4.00, 
Scribner. 

Dodd,  M.  E. — "Chemistry  of  the  Household."  $1.50,  American 
School  of  Home  Economics,  Chicago,  111. 

Duncan. — "Chemistry  of  Commerce."    Harper. 

Holleman. — "Organic  Chemistry."    Wiley. 

King,  F.  H.— "The  Soil."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Lassar-Cohn. — "Chemistry  in  Daily  Life."    $1.50,  Lippincott 

Mendeleeff. — "Principles  of  Chemistry."  2  vols.,  $10.00,  Long- 
mans. 

Olsen. — "Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis."  $4.00,  Van  Nostrand 
Co. 

Philip,  J.  C. — "Romance  of  Modern  Chemistry."  $1.50,  Lippin- 
cott. 

Richards  and  Elliott. — "Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleansing." 
$1.00,  Home  Science  Pub.  Co. 

Richter  and  Smith. — "Organic  Chemistry."  2  vols.,  $6.00,  Blakis- 
ton. 

Thorp,  F.  H.— "Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry."  $3.75,  Mac- 
millan. 

Walker,  J. — "Introduction  to  Physical  Chemistry."  $3.25,  Mac- 
millan. 

A  valuable  list  of  publications  for  free  distribution,  including 
many  on  different  phases  of  applied  chemistry  (foods,  soils,  fertili- 
zers, etc.),  can  be  obtained  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Also  a  list  of  similar  publications  for  sale  at  a  nom- 
inal sum  can  be  obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

The  list  of  reference  books  given  could  be  indefinitely  extended. 
The  free  use  of  reference  books  in  all  branches  should  be  encour- 
aged as  much  as  possible. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  485 

CHAPTER  IX 

BIOLOGY 

General  works  for  the  teacher: 
Coulter,  J.  M.  and  J.  G.,  and  Patterson,  A.  J. — "Practical  Nature 

Study  and  Elementary  Agriculture."    $1.35,  Appleton. 
Ganong,  W.  F. — "The  Teaching  Botanist."    $1.25,  Macmillan. 
Guyer,  M.  F. — "Animal  Micrology."    $1.75,  University  of  Chicago. 
Hodge,  C.  F.— "Nature  Study  and  Life."    $1.50,  Ginn. 
Lloyd,  F.  E.,  and  Bigelow,  M.  A.— "The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the 

Secondary  School."    $1.50,  Longmans. 
Stevens,  W.  C. — "Plant  Anatomy  and  Handbook  of  Microtechnic." 

$2.00,  Blakiston. 

School  Science  and  Mathematics.  Chicago,  published  monthly;  eleven 
volumes  now  completed. 

References  for  school  library: 

Chapman,  F.  M. — "Handbook  of  North  American  Birds."  $2.00, 
$2.50,  Appleton. 

Coulter,  J.  M.;  Barnes,  C.  R.;  Cowles,  H.  C.— "A  Textbook  of  Bot- 
any." 3  vols.,  $2.00  each,  American  Book  Co. 

Duggar,  B.  M. — "Plant  Physiology  with  Special  Reference  to  Plant 
Production."  Gives  special  attention  to  agriculture.  $1.60, 
Macmillan. 

Harmer,  S.  F.,  and  Shipley,  A.  E.— "The  Cambridge  Natural  His- 
tory." 10  vols.,  $32.50,  Macmillan. 

Hegner,  R.  W. — "An  Introduction  to  Zoology."  Discusses  Ameri- 
can animals.  $1.90,  Macmillan. 

Hertwig,  R.  (Translation  by  J.  S.  Kingsley).— "A  Manual  of 
Zoology."  Comprehensive.  Accentuates  relations  of  ani- 
mals to  man.  $3.00,  Holt. 

Kellogg,  V.  L. — "American  Insects."    $5.00,  Holt. 

Lankester,  E.  R. — "A  Treatise  on  Zoology."  Macmillan.  Not  yet 
completed;  six  volumes  published. 

Nature  Library,  The.  15  vols.  $4.00  each,  Doubleday,  Page.  Some 
of  the  books  in  this  series  ("The  Frog  Book,"  "The  Moth 
Book,"  "The  Butterfly  Book")  are  excellent. 


486  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Robinson,  B.  L.,  and  Fernald,  M.  L. — "Gray's  New  Manual  of 
Botany."  $2.50,  American  Book  Co. 

Strassburger,  E.;  Noll,  F.:  Schenck,  H.;  Karsten,  G.  (Lang,  W.  H.). 
—"A  Textbook  of  Botany."  $4.00,  Macmillan. 

Walter,  H.  E.— "Wild  Birds  in  City  Parks."    $.35,  McClurg. 

Ward,  H.  B.— "Fresh-Water  Biology."  In  press.  Comprehen- 
sive, with  keys  to  all  groups  of  American  fresh-water  animals 
and  plants.  Wiley. 

High  school  texts: 
Bergen,  J.  Y.,  and  Caldwell,  O.  W.— "Practical  Botany."    $1.30, 

Ginn. 
Bergen,  J.  Y.,  and  Davis,  B.  M. — "Principles  of  Botany."    $1.50, 

Ginn. 
Hunter,  C.  W. — "Essentials  of  Biology."    $1.25,  American  Book 

Co.    Presented  in  Problems. 
Jordan,  D.  S.;  Kellogg,  V.  L.,  and  Heath,  H.— "Animal  Studies." 

$1.25,  Appleton. 
Linville,  H.  R.,  and  Kelly,  H.  A.— "A  Textbook  in  General  Zoology." 

$1.50,  Ginn. 

Laboratory  manuals: 

Pepoon,  H.  S.;  Mitchell,  W.  R.;  Maxwell,  F.  B.— "Studies  of  Plant 
Life."  $.50,  Heath. 

Sharpe,  R.  W. — "Laboratory  Manual  in  Biology."  $.75,  Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 

Whitney,  W.;  Lucas,  F.  C.;  Shinn,  H.  B.,  and  Smallwood,  M.  E.— 
"A  Guide  for  the  Study  of  Animals."  $.50,  Heath. 

CHAPTER  X 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Teaching  physiography  in  high  schools: 
Brigham,  A.   P. — "Physical   Geography  in   Secondary  Schools." 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1897. 
Bryce,  James. — "Importance  of  Geography  in  Education."    Jour. 

of  Geog.,  vol.  I,  no.  4. 
Davis,  W.  M.— "Geographical  Essays,"  chaps.  II,  IV,  VII,  VIII, 

IX,  XI,  XII.    $2.75,  Ginn. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  487 

DeGarmo,  Charles. — "  Correlation  of  Studies."   Educational  Review, 

May,  1893. 
Dryer,  Charles.  R. — "What  is  Geography?"   Jour,  of  Geog.,  Oct., 

1905. 
Dryer,  Charles  R. — "The  New  Geography:  Studies  in  Indiana 

Geography."    The  Inland  Pub.  Co. 

Fenneman,  N.  M. — "Problems  in  the  Teaching  of  Physical  Geog- 
raphy in  the  High  Schools."    Jour,  of  Geog.,  Mar.,  1909. 
Kelley,  Leslie  C. — "Physical  Geography  in  Secondary  Schools." 

Jour,  of  Geog.,  Jan.,  1908. 
Marbut,  C.  F. — "A  College  Unit  in  Physical  Geography."    Jour. 

of  Geog.,  May,  1909. 
Platt,  Mary  I. — "Physical  Geography  in  High  Schools."    Jour,  of 

Geog.,  Oct.,  1904. 

Redway,  J.  W. — " The  New  Basis  of  Geography."   $i .00,  Macmillan. 
Salisbury,  Rollin  D. — "Physiography  in  the  High  School."    Jour. 

of  Geog.,  Nov.,  1910. 
Stearns,  Jane. — "A  Physiography  Laboratory."    Jour,  of  Geog., 

Dec.,  1909. 
Sutherland,  W.  J.— "The  Teaching  of  Geography."    $1.25,  Scott, 

Foresman. 
Trotter,  Spencer. — "The  Social  Function  of  Geography."    Fourth 

Year  Book,  Nat.  Herbart  Soc. 

For  high  school  libraries: 

Chamberlin  and  Salisbury. — "Geology."    $12.00,  Holt. 

Davis,  W.  M. — "Elementary  Meteorology."    $2.50,  Ginn. 

Davis,  W.  M. — "Geographical  Essays."    $2.75,  Ginn. 

Fairbanks,  H.  W. — "Practical  Physiography."    Allyn  and  Bacon. 

Geikie,  A. — "Outlines  of  Field  Geology."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 

Gregory,  Keller,  and  Bishop. —  "Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy." $3.00,  Ginn. 

Guyot,  Arnold.— "The  Earth  and  Man."    $1.75,  Scribner. 

Henry,  A.  J.— "Climatology  of  the  United  States."  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau. 

Jordan,  David  Starr. — "Science  Sketches."    $1.50,  McClurg. 

Le  Conte,  Jos.— "  Compend  of  Geology."    $1.20,  American  Book  Co. 

Merrill,  A.  P. — "Rocks,  Rock  Weathering,  and  Soils."  $4.00,  Mac- 
millan. 


488  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mill,  Hugh  R.— "The  New  International  Geography.*     $3.50,  Ap- 

pleton. 

Mill,  Hugh  R.— "The  Realm  of  Nature."    $1.50,  Scribner. 
Powell,  J.  W.,  and  others.— "Physiography  of  the  United  States." 

American  Book  Co. 

Roberts,  R.  D.— "The  Earth's  History."     $1.50,  Scribner. 
Russell,  I.  C.— "Glaciers  of  North  America."     $1.75,  Ginn. 
Russell  I.  C. — "Lakes  of  North  America."     $1.50,  Ginn. 
Russell,  I.  C. — "Rivers  of  North  America."    $2.00,  Putnam. 
Russell,  I.  C. — "North  America."     $2.50,  Appleton. 
Salisbury,  R.  D.— "Physiography  for  High  Schools."     $1.50,  Holt. 
Shaler,  N.  S.— "Aspects  of  the  Earth."     $2.50,  Scribner. 
Shaler,  N.  S. — "Nature  and  Man  in  America."     $1.50,  Scribner. 
Shaler,  N.  S.— "Outlines  of  the  Earth's  History."     $1.75,  Appleton. 
Tarr,  R.  S. — "Economic  Geology."    $3.50,  Macmillan. 
Tarr,  R.  S. — "Elementary  Geology."    $1.40,  Macmillan. 
Waldo,    Frank. — "Elementary    Meteorology."    $1.50,    American 

Book  Co. 
Ward,  R.  deC. — "Practical    Exercises    in    Meteorology."    $1.12, 

Ginn. 

CHAPTER  XI 

ENGLISH 

Aiken,  W.  E.— "The  Study  of  English  Literature."  Education, 
26  :  36. 

Ashmun,  M. — "The  Study  of  the  English  Masterpieces."  Educa- 
tion, 27  :  628. 

Baldwin,  C.  S.— "The  Value  of  the  Office  Hour  in  the  Teaching  of 
Rhetoric."  Educational  Review,  8  :  290. 

Bates,  Arlo. — "Talks  on  the  Study  of  Literature."     $1.50,  Houghton. 

Blakely,  G.  S.— "Teachers'  Outlines  for  Studies  in  English."  $.50, 
American  Book  Co. 

Bleyer,  W.  G.— "The  High  School  Course  in  English."  $.15, 
Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Bolenius,  E.  M. — "Oral  Composition."    Education,  31  :  449. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott.— "The  Teaching  of  English."  $1.50, 
Loagmans.  Contains  a  full  bibliography  to  1903. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  489 

Chubb,  Percival.— "The  Teaching  of  English."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 

Cooper,  L. — "On  the  Teaching  of  Written  Composition."  Educa- 
tion, 30  :  421. 

Cross,  W.  L.— "English  in  the  Schools."    Education,  28  :  537. 

Danton,  G.  H. — "Required  Reading  and  Company."  Educational 
Review,  41  :  510. 

Dole,  C.  A.— "The  Use  of  the  Model  in  English  Composition." 
Education,  24  :  426. 

Dunbar,  A.  M.— "The  Training  of  a  Teacher  of  English."  Educa- 
tion, 29  :  97. 

Durand,  G.  H. — "The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary 
Schools."  Education,  28  :  15. 

Eliot,  C.  W.— "The  Differentiation  of  the  High  School  Course  in 
English."  Education,  31  :  639. 

Faunce,  W.  H.  P.— "The  Humanizing  of  Study."  School  Review, 
16  :  492. 

Firkins,  O.  W.— "The  Teaching  of  Literature."    Education,  28  :  306. 

Foster,  W.  T.— "A  Talk  with  Teachers  of  English."  Educational 
Review,  31  :  198. 

Fulton,  M.  G. — "Defence  of  the  Special  Teacher  of  Composition." 
Nation,  86  :  463. 

Gardiner,  J.  H.— "Teaching  English  in  the  Schools."  Outlook, 
94  :  626. 

Hagarty,  L.  D.— "The  Formation  of  Literary  Taste."  Educa- 
tional Review,  33  :  402. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A. — "Teaching  the  Language  Arts."     $1.00,  Appleton. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M. — "Problems  in  the  Teaching  of  Composition." 
Holt. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M. — "How  to  Study  Fiction."     Allyn  and  Bacon. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M. — "An  Experiment  in  Correcting  Compositions." 
Educational  Review,  7  :  240. 

Hitchcock,  A.  M. — "Economy  in  Teaching  Composition."  Educa- 
tion, 24  :  348. 

Hopkins,  E>  M. — "Handbook  of  English."     University  of  Kansas. 

Lewis,  F.  W. — "Qualifications  of  the  English  Teacher."  Educa- 
tion, 23  :  15. 

Lewis,  W.  D. — "Teaching  of  English."    Outlook,  94  :  631. 

Libby,  W.— "Forms  of  High  School  Recitation  "  Education,  28: 
608. 


490  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Maby,  M.  C. — "Esthetic  Appreciation  of  Literature  in  Secondary 

Schools."    School  Review,  15  :  731. 
Maby,  M.  C.— "For  the  Love  of  It."    Outlook,  90  :  565. 
Marsh  and  Royster. — "Teachers'  Manual  for  the  Study  of  English 

Classics."    Scott,  Foresman. 
McDonald,  J.  W.— "The  Plight  of  English  in  the  American  High 

School."    Education,  25  :  16. 
McMurry,  C.  A. — "Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of  Complete 

English  Classics."    $.75,  Macmillan. 
Miller,  R.  D.— "Teaching  of  English."    Nation,  90  :  208. 
Miller,  R.  D.— "Power  to  Think  Straight."    Nation,  91  :  333. 
Mumford,  A.  D. — "Aim  of  the  High  School  Course  in  Composition." 

Education,  28  :  608. 
Neilson,  W.  A.— "What  the  College  Has  a  Right  to  Expect  of  the 

Schools  in  English."     School  Review,  16  :  73. 
Palmer,  G.  H— "  Self  -Cultivation  in  English."     $.10,  Crowell. 
Porter  and  Clarke. — "New  Ideas  in  Teaching  English  Literature." 

Poet  Lore,  8  :  432;  9  :  585. 
Ratigan,  W.  P. — "A  Study  of  First  Year  English  in  the  Secondary 

School."     Bulletin  of  Marquette  University,  No.  4. 
Scott,  F.  N.— "A  Brief  Catechism  on  Text-Books  in  English." 

Educational  Review,  37  :  359. 
Scudder,  H.  E.— "The  Educational  Law  of  Reading  and  Writing." 

Atlantic,  73  :  252. 

Shackford,  M.  H. — "On  Teaching  Elementary  English."    Educa- 
tional Review,  30  :  303. 
Sisson,  E.  O.— "The  High  School's  Cure  of  Souls."    Educational 

Review,  35  :  359. 
Stevens,   W.  L. — "Co-operation  in  English  Teaching."    Nation, 

86  :  303. 

Thomas,  C.  S.— "How  to  Teach  the  English  Classics."     Hough- 
ton. 
Thurber,   S. — "Five  Axioms  of  English  Composition  Teaching." 

School  Review,  5:7. 
Trent,  Hanson,  and  Brewster. — "An  Introduction  to  the  English 

Classics."     Ginn. 
Willock,  J.  H. — "Teaching  of  Elementary  English."     Education, 

31  :  ii. 

Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  491 

Proceedings  of  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools. 

Course  Books  of  High  Schools,  e.  g.,  Oak  Park,  111.;  New  Bedford, 
Mass. 

Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools,  English,  New  York  State  Educa- 
tion Department,  Albany. 

Catalogue  of  Music  Publications  of  Celebrated  Authors  Whose 
Poems  Have  Been  Set  to  Music.  Ditson. 

The  English  Journal. — The  University  of  Chicago  Press.  Organ 
of  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English. 


CHAPTER  XII 

PUBLIC  SPEAKING  AND  VOICE  TRAINING 

For  the  teacher: 

Baker,  G.  P.— "Forms  of  Public  Address."    $1.25,  Ginn. 

Bautain,  M. — "The  Art  of  Extempore  Speaking."    $1.50,  Scribner. 

Beecher,  H.  W.— "  Oratory."    $.50,  Scrantom,  Wetmore. 

Brooks,  P. — "Lectures  on  Preaching."     $1.20,  Dutton. 

Buckley,  J.  M. — "Extemporaneous  Oratory."     $1.50,  Methuen. 

Corson,  H. — "The  Aims  of  Literary  Study."     $.75,  Macmillan. 

Corson,  H.— "The  Voice  and  Spiritual  Education."  $.75,  Mac- 
millan. 

Curry,  S.  S. — "The  Province  of  Expression."  $2.00,  Boston 
Expression  Co. 

Curry,  S.  S. — "Vocal  and  Literary  Interpretation  of  the  Bible." 
$1.50,  Macmillan. 

Curry,  S.  S. — "Mind  and  Voice."     $1.50,  Boston  Expression  Co 

Higginson,  T.  W. — "Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech  Making."  $.50, 
Longmans. 

Hussey,  M.  S. — "Helps  in  Teaching  Reading."    $.75,  Lothrop. 

Kleiser,  Grenville. — "How  to  Speak  in  Public."  $1.25,  Funk  and 
Wagnalls. 

Lawrence,  E.  G. — "Speech  Making."    $1.25,  Barnes. 

Legouve",  E. — "Reading  as  a  Fine  Art."     $.50,  Penn. 

Matthews,  B. — "Notes  on  Speech  Making."     $.50,  Longmans. 

Matthews.  Wm. — "Orators  and  Oratory." 


492  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mills,  W. — "Voice  Production."    $2.25,  Lippincott. 

Ott,  E.  A. — "How  to  Use  the  Voice  in  Speaking  and  Reading." 

$1.25,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Ott,  E.  A.— "How  to  Gesture."    $1.00,  Hinds,  Noble. 
Pearson,  P.  M. — Various  articles  in  Talent  for  1904,  1905,  1906, 

1907.     See  especially  June,  1904. 

Phillips,  A.  E.— "Effective  Speaking."     $1.50,  Newton  Co. 
Phillips,  A.  E. — "Natural  Drills  in  Expression."     $1.25,  Newton  Co, 
Scott,    W.   D.— "The   Psychology   of   Public   Speaking."    $1.25. 

Pearson. 

Sears,  L.— "The  History  of  Oratory."    $1.50,  Scott. 
Sears,  L. — "The  Occasional  Address."    $1.25,  Putnam. 
Shurter,  E.  D. — "Extempore  Speaking."     $.90,  Ginn. 
Trueblood,  T.  C. — "Reports  of  National  Speech  Arts  Association." 

1893-1911. 

For  the  library: 

Blackstone,  H.  E. — "The  Best  American  Orations  of  To-day/' 
$1.25,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Bryan,  W.  J—  "The  World's  Famous  Orations."  10  vols.,  Funk 
and  Wagnalls. 

Clark,  S.  H.— "Handbook  of  Best  Readings."    $1.25,  Scribner. 

Clark  and  Blanchard. — "Practical  Public  Speaking."  $1.00,  Scrib- 
ner. 

Cumnock,  R.  L. — "Choice  Readings."     $1.50,  McClurg. 

Fulton  and  Trueblood. — "Patriotic  Eloquence."     $1.00,  Scribner. 

Fulton  and  Trueblood.— "  Choice  Readings."     $1.50,  Ginn. 

Fulton  and  Trueblood. — "Standard  Selections."     $1.25,  Ginn. 

Harding,  S.  B. — "Select  Orations  Illustrating  American  History." 
$1.25,  Macmillan. 

Henley,  W.  E. — "Lyra  Heroica."     $1.25,  Scribner. 

Knapp  and  French. — "The  Speech  for  Special  Occasions."  Mac- 
millan. 

Pearson,  P.  M. — "Intercollegiate  Debates."     $1.50,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Pearson,  P.  M. — The  Speaker,  a  quarterly  magazine  of  the  best  cur- 
rent material  for  public  reading.  $1.50  per  year,  Hinds, 
Noble. 

Reed,  T.  B. — "Modern  Eloquence."     10  vols.,  $40.00,  Morris. 

Ringwalt,  R.  C. — "Modern  American  Oratory."    $1.00,  Holt 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  493 

Ringwalt,  R.  C. — "Briefs  on  Public  Questions."  $1.20,  Longmans. 
Shurter,  E.  D. — "Masterpieces  of  Modern  Oratory."  $1.00,  Ginn. 
Shurter,  E.  D.— "Representative  College  Orations."  $1.25,  Mac- 

millan. 

Shurter,  E.  D.— "American  Oratory."  $1.65,  Southwest  Pub.  Co. 
Shurter,  E.  D. — "Modern  American  Speaker."  $1.25,  Hinds,  Noble. 
The  Public  Speaking  Review.  $1.50  a  year,  monthly,  Swarthmore, 

Pa. 

Wagner,  L. — "Modern  Political  Orations."     $1.00,  Holt. 
"Winning  Orations,  Prize  Orations  in  the  Inter-State  Association." 

2  vols.     $2.50,  Crane  Co. 
"Winning  Speeches,   Prize  Orations  in   the  Northern   Oratorical 

League."     $1.25,  American  Book  Co. 

Text-books: 

Baker  and  Huntington. — "Principles  of  Argumentation."  $1.12, 
Ginn. 

Eisenwein,  J.  Berg. — "How  to  Attract  and  Hold  an  Audience." 
$1.25,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Foster,  W.  T. — "Argumentation  and  Debate."     $1.25,  Houghton. 

Fulton  and  Trueblood. — "Essentials  of  Public  Speaking  for  Sec- 
ondary Schools."  $1.00,  Ginn. 

Fulton  and  Trueblood. — "Practical  Elements  of  Elocution  for 
.  Advanced  Pupils."  $1.50,  Ginn. 

Laycock  and  Scales. — "Argumentation  and  Debate."  $1.10,  Mac- 
millan. 

MacEwan,  E.  J. — "Essentials  of  Argumentation."    $1.12,  Heath. 

Pattee,  G.  K.— "  Practical  Argumentation."     $1.10,  Century  Co. 

Phillips,  A.  E.— "Effective  Speaking."     $1.50,  Newton  Co. 

Shurter,  E.  D.— "Public  Speaking."     $.90,  Allyn  and  Bacon. 

Thomas,  R.  W. — "Argumentation  and  Debate."  $1.25,  American 
Book  Co. 


494  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  XIII 

LATIN 

The  following  list  of  books  and  journals  contains  only  those  which 
are  believed  to  be  the  most  valuable  to  the  average  teacher  who 
reads  only  English.  Limitations  of  space  exclude  many  which  are 
more  valuable  for  special  purposes  or  for  some  teachers.  A  somewhat 
longer  list  can  be  found  on  p.  197  of  Bennett  and  Bristol's  "Teach- 
ing of  Latin  and  Greek."  A  full  bibliography  of  the  discussion  on 
the  place  of  the  classics  in  education  can  be  gleaned  from  the  notes 
of  Professor  Shorey's  chapter  in  Kelsey's  "Latin  and  Greek  in 
American  Education."  Every  teacher  should,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
subscribe  to  one  or  more  of  the  classical  journals,  and  keep  in- 
formed on  new  books  from  their  book  reviews. 

Journals: 

The  Classical  Journal.    The  University  of  Chicago  Press. 
The  Classical  Weekly.    Teachers  College,  New  York  City. 

Aims  and  methods: 
Bennett  and  Bristol. — "The  Teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek."    $1.50, 

Longmans. 
Kelsey,  F.  W. — "Latin  and  Greek  in  American  Education."    $1.50, 

Macmillan. 

The  language: 

Bennett,  C.  E. — "The  Latin  Language."    $1.00,  Allyn  and  Bacon. 
Byrne,   Lee.— "The   Syntax  of  High  School  Latin."     $.75,  The 

University  of  Chicago  Press. 
Lewis,  C.  T. — "Elementary  Latin  Dictionary."    $2.00,  American 

Book  Co. 
Lewis  and  Short. — "Harper's  Latin  Dictionary."    $6.50,  American 

Book  Co. 
Lodge,  Gonzalez.— "The  Vocabulary  of  High  School  Latin."    $1.50, 

Teachers  College. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  495 

Lodge,  Gonzalez. — "Gildersleeve's  Latin  Grammar."  $1.20,  Uni- 
versity Publishing  Co.  The  best  American  grammar  for  ref- 
erence; but  the  teacher  should  have  several  grammars. 

White,  J.  T.— "English-Latin  Lexicon."    $1.50,  Ginn. 

General  reference: 

Peck,  H.  T. — "Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  An- 
tiquities."    $6.00  in  one  vol.,  $7.00  in  two,  American  Book  Co. 
Sandys,    J.   E. — "A   Companion   to   Latin   Studies."    University 
Press,  Cambridge. 

History  of  literature: 

Crutwell,  C.  T. — "History  of  Roman  Literature."    $2.50,  Scribner. 
Duff,  J.  W.— "A  Literary  History  of  Rome."     $4.00,  Scribner. 
Mackail,  J.  W. — "Latin  Literature."    $1.25,  Scribner. 

History: 

Abbott,  F.  F.— "Roman  Political  Institutions."    $1.50,  Ginn. 
Bury,  J.  B.— "The  Student's  History  of  the  Roman  Empire."     $1.50, 

American  Book  Co. 
How  and  Leigh. — "A  History  of  Rome  to  the  Death  of  Caesar." 

$2.00,  Longmans. 
Mommsen,  Theodor. — "The  History  of  Rome,"  5  vols.,  $10.00, 

Scribner;  also  in  Everyman's  Library,   4  vols.,   $.35  each, 

Dutton. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C. — "Seven  Roman  Statesmen."    Edward  Arnold, 

London. 
Pelham,  Henry. — "Outlines  of  Roman  History."    $1.75,  Putnam. 

Roman  life: 
Abbott,  F.  F.— "Society  and  Politics  in  Ancient  Rome."    $1.25, 

Scribner. 
Abbott,  F.  F.— "The  Common  People  of  Ancient  Rome."    $1.50, 

Scribner. 

Fowler,  W.  W.— "Social  Life  at  Rome."    $2.25,  Macmillan. 
Johnston,  H.  W.— "The  Private  Life  of  the  Romans."    $1.50, 

Scott,  Foresman. 

The  city  and  forum: 

Hiilsen,  Ch.— "The  Roman  Forum,"  translated  by  J.  B.  Carter, 
Stechert. 


496  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lanciani,  R. — "The  Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome." 

$4.00,  Houghton. 
Plainer,   S.   B. — "The  Topography  and  Monuments  of  Ancient 

Rome."    $3.00,  Allyn  and  Bacon. 

Caesar: 

Fowler,  W.  W.— "Caesar,"  in  "Heroes  of  the  Nations  Series."  $1,50, 
Putnam. 

Holmes,  T.  R.— "Caesar's  Conquest  of  Gaul."  $7.75,  The  Claren- 
don Press. 

Holmes,  T.  R. — "Translation  of  Caesar's  Commentaries  on  the 
Gallic  War."  $1.40,  Macmillan. 

Cicero: 

Boissier,  G. — "Cicero  and  His  Friends."    $1.75,  Putnam. 
Forsyth,  W.  Q.  C— "Life  of  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero."   $2.50,  Scrib- 
ner. 

Virgil: 

Ballard,  H.  H.— "The  ^Eneid  of  Virgil,"  translated  into  English 
verse.  $.60,  Scribner. 

Boissier,  G.— "The  Country  of  Horace  and  Virgil."    $i. 75,  Putnam. 

Conington,  John. — "Virgil,"  3  vols.,  the  second  containing  the  first 
six  books  of  the  ^Eneid.  George  Bell  and  Sons,  London. 

Conington,  John. — "The  ^Eneid  of  Virgil,"  translated  into  English 
prose.  $.25,  Macmillan. 

Fairbanks,  Arthur. — "The  Mythology  of  Greece  and  Rome."  $1.50, 
Appleton. 

Glover,  T.  R.— "Studies  in  Virgil."  $2.25,  Edward  Arnold,  Lon- 
don. 

Sellar,  W.  Y.— "Virgil."    $2.25,  The  Clarendon  Press. 

Williams,  T.  C.— "The  ^neid  of  Virgil,"  translated.  $1.50, 
Houghton. 

Maps  and  illustrations: 

Kiepert,  H.— "Atlas  Antiquus."    $3.00,  Rand,  McNally. 
Kiepert,  H.— "Wall  Maps."    Rand,  McNally. 
Schreiber,   Th.— "Atlas   of   Classical   Antiquities."    $6.50,   Mao 
millan. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  497 

Schreiber,  Th. — "Atlas  of  Ancient  and  Classical  Geography,"  in 
"Everyman's  Library,"  27  maps,  with  index.  $.35,  But- 
ton. 

Photographs  may  be  obtained  from  Fratelli  Alinari,  137  Via  del 
Corso,  Rome,  Italy,  or  D.  Anderson,  85  Piazza,  di  Spagna, 
Rome,  Italy. 

Slides  may  be  obtained  from  Levy  &  ses  Fils,  44,  Rue  Letellier,  44. 
Paris  XVe. 

Casts  may  be  obtained  from  P.  P.  Caproni  and  Bro.,  1914  Wash- 
ington Street,  Boston. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MODERN  LANGUAGES 

Journals: 

Modern  Language  Notes,  Baltimore;  articles  on  research  more  than 
on  methods;  good  reviews. 

Modern  Language  Teaching,  London  W.,  organ  of  the  English  Mod- 
ern Language  Association;  much  on  methods. 

Die  neuren  Sprachen. 

Le  maitre  phonttique. 

Les  Langues  modernes. 

Bolletina  di  filogia  moderna. 

Monatshefte  jiir  deutsche  Sprache  und  Padagogik,  Milwaukee. 

Publications  of  the  American  Modern  Language  Association,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Methods: 

Bahlsen,  L. — "The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages."    $.50,  Ginn. 

Baumann,  F. — "Reform  und  Anti-Reform  im  neusprachlichen  Un- 
terricht."  Berlin,  1902. 

Bierbaum. — "Die  analytischdirekte  Methode  des  neusprachlichen 
Unterrichts."  Cassel. 

Brebner. — "The  Method  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages  in  Ger- 
many." Macmillan. 

Breul. — "The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages  in  Second- 
ary Schools."  $.60,  Macmillan. 

Breymann. — "Die  neusprachliche  Reform-Litteratur."    Leipzig. 


498  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Collard. — "La  me"triode  directe  dans  1'enseignement  des  langues 

vivantes."    Bruxelles. 
Gouin,    F. — "The  Art  of  Teaching  and   Studying   Languages." 

$2.75,  Longmans. 
Heness,  G. — Der  neue  Leitfaden,  beim  Unterricht  in  der  deutschen 

Sprache.     $1.20,  Holt. 
Jespersen,  O. — "How  to  Teach  a  Foreign  Language,"  translated  by 

Sophia  Yhlen-Olsen.     $.90,  Macmillan. 
Sauveur. — "Introduction  to  the  Teaching  of  Living  Languages." 

$.25,  Jenkins. 
Special  Reports  of  the  Educational  Department  of  Great  Britain, 

vol.  in. 

Victor. — "Die  Methodik  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts."  Leipzig. 
Victor. — "Der  Sprachunterricht  muss  umkehren."     Heilbronn. 
Waetzold. — "Die  Aufgabe  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts  und  die 

Vorbildung  der  Lehrer."     Berlin. 
Walter,   M. — "Die   Reform   des  neusprachlichen   Unterrichts  auf 

Schule  und  Universitat."    Marburg. 

Courses: 
"Report  of  the  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  of 

the  National  Education  Association,"  1899. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  American  Modern  Lan- 
guage Association,"  contained  in  the  preceding,  and  issued 
separately  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  as 
chap.  XXVI  of  the  Commissioner's  Report  for  1899. 
"Report  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  and  Colleges  of 
the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the 
North  Central  States,"  1908,  Chicago  (from  the  secretary  of 
the  association). 

"Report  of  a  Committee  of  Nine  of  the  Wisconsin  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation," 1905,  by  A.  R.  Hohlfeld,  Madison. 
The  first  three  of  these  present  graded  lists  of  texts  suggested  for 
reading,  with  outlines  of  the  kind  and  amount  of  work  to  be  under- 
taken in  each  grade. 

For  the  use  of  the  German  department: 

"A  History  of  Germany."     Kohlrausch,  Lewis,  Bayard  Taylor,  or 
Sime. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  499 

Curme's  "Grammar  of  the  German  Language."    $3.50,  Macmillan. 

Duden's  "Orthographisches  Worterbuch." 

Hempl's  "German  Orthography."    $2.00,  Ginn. 

Kohler's  "Worterbuch"  or,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  Muret-Sanders 

"Worterbuch." 

Konnecke's  Bilderatlas  zur  deutschen  Litteraturgeschichte. 
Sweet's  "Primer  of  Phonetics." 
Thomas'   "German  Grammar"   ($1.50,   Holt)  and  several  other 

school  grammars  than  the  one  used  in  instruction. 
Victor's  "Die  Aussprache  des  Schriftdeutschen." 

An  atlas  of  Germany,  as  Andree,  or  Kiepert. 

A  wall  map  of  Germany  (a  good  one  published  by  Rand,  McNally). 

Two  histories  of  German  literature,  one  illustrated,  Vogt  and  Koch, 

or  Konig,  and  at  least  one  other:    Scherer,  Priest,  Hosmer, 

Francke,  or  Robertson. 
Two  or  three  German  illustrated  journals,  as  Ueber  Land  und  Meer, 

Die  Kunst  fur  Alle,  Die  Gartenlaube,  Velhagen  und  Klasing's 

Deutsche  Monatshefte. 
A    German-American    newspaper,    as   Die   Illinois   Staatszeitung, 

Chicago,  or  Die  New  Yorker  Staalszeitung,  New  York  City. 

For  the  use  of  the  French  department: 
Bellows'  French-English  Dictionary.     $1.00,  Holt. 
Bevier. — French  Grammar.     $1.00,  Holt. 
Cle*dat. — Grammaire  raisonnee.     Jenkins. 
Doumic. — Histoire  de  la  litterature  francaise.     Stechert. 
Duruy. — History  of  France.     Hachette. 

Edgren  and  Burnett's  French-English  Dictionary.     $1.50,  Holt. 
Larousse. — Petit  Dictionnaire.    All  French. 
Passy. — Les  Sons  du  Franjais.     Jenkins. 

Passyand  Rambaud. — "  Chrestomathie  " :  a  good  collection  of  selec- 
tions from  French  literature. 
Van  Laun. — History  of  French  Literature. 

Map  of  France.    Johnson. 

Stereopticons,  reflectoscopes,  slides,  etc.: 
A.  H.  Thompson  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 


500  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mclntosh  Stereopticon  Co.,  Chicago. 

T.  H.  McAllister,  49  Nassau  Street,  New  York  City. 

Foreign  books,  maps,  etc. : 

G.  E.  Stechert  &  Co.,  151  West  2$th  Street,  New  York. 
Carl  Schonhof,  128  Treraont  Street,  Boston. 
W.  R.  Jenkins,  for  French  books. 
Gustav  Fock,  Leipzig. 
F.  A.  Brockhaus,  Leipzig. 

Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago  and  New  York  (maps  only). 
Em.  Terquem,  Paris. 
Picard  et  fils,  Paris. 

Song  books: 
Tonger's  "Taschen-Album,"  Band  i  :  "100  Volkslieder  fur  mittlere 

Stimme." 

"Gaudeamus,  200  ausgewahlte  Volks  u.  Kommerslieder." 
' '  Deutsches  Liederbuch  fiir  amerikanische  Studenten."    $.  75,  Heath. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HISTORY 

FOR  THE  LIBRARY: 

The  following  lists  of  books  for  supplementary  reading  are  in- 
tended to  be  suggestive  only,  and  by  no  means  contain  all  the  titles 
in  the  fields  of  history,  civil  government,  and  economics  that  it  is 
desirable  for  a  high  school  library  to  have.  Nevertheless,  it  will 
be  of  very  much  more  avail  to  a  school  to  have  many  copies  of  most 
of  the  books  named  than  to  have  a  longer  list  and  but  one  book  of 
each  kind. 

Ancient  history: 

Abbott,  F.  F.— "Short  History  of  Rome."     $1.00,  Scott,  Foresman 
Baikie,  J.— "The  Story  of  the  Pharaohs."     $2.50,  Macmillan. 
Bury,  J.  B. — "History  of  Greece."     $1.90,  Macmillan. 
Capps,  E. — "Homer  to  Theocritus."     $1.50,  Scribner. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  501 

Church,  A.  J.— "Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero."    $.75,  Dodd, 

Mead. 

Davis,  W.  S. — "Outlines  of  Roman  Empire."     $.65,  Macmillan. 
Day,  E. — "Social  Life  of  the  Hebrews."     $1.25,  Scribner. 
Emerton,  E. — "Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages."     $1.12,  Ginn. 
Fling,  F.  M.— "Source  Book  of  Greek  History."     $1.00,  Heath. 
Fowler,  W.  W.— "Julius  Caesar."     $1.50,  Putnam. 
Guerber,  H.  A. — "Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome."    $1.50,  American 

Book  Co. 
Homer. — "Iliad,"  translated   by  Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers.    $.80, 

Macmillan. 

Homer. — "Odyssey,"  translated  by  Butcher  and  Lang.   $.80,  Mac- 
millan. 
How,  W.  W.,  and  Leigh,  H.  D.— "History  of  Rome  to  the  Death  of 

Caesar."    $2.00,  Longmans. 
Jones,   H.   S. — "Roman   Empire,   B.C.   29  to  A.D.   476."    $1.50, 

Putnam. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P. — "Alexander's  Empire."    $1.50,  Putnam. 
Maspdro,  G. — "Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria."  $1.50,  Appleton. 
Munro,  D.  C.— "Source  Book  of  Roman  History."     $1.00,  Heath. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C. — "Seven  Roman  Statesmen  of  the  Later  Republic." 

$1.60,  Longmans. 
Plutarch. — "Lives,"  the  so-called  Dryden  translation,  revised  by 

Clough.     $2.00,  Little,  Brown. 

Seignobos,  C. — "History  of  Ancient  Civilization."     $1.25,  Scribner. 
Sophocles. — "Works."     (Everyman's  Library.)     $.35,  Dutton. 
Tucker,  T.  G. — "Life  in  Ancient  Athens."     $1.25,  Macmillan. 
Wheeler,  B.  I.— "Alexander  the  Great."    $1.50,  Putnam. 

Mediaeval  and  modern  history: 
Adams,  G.  B. — "Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages."    $2.50, 

Scribner. 

Archer,  T.  A.,  and  Kingsford,  C.  L.— "The  Crusades."    $1.60,  Holt. 
Barry,  W. — "Papal  Monarchy."     $1.35,  Putnam. 
Be*mont,    C.,    and    Monod,  G. — "Medieval    Europe,    395-1270." 

$1.60,  Holt. 

Day,  C. — "History  of  Commerce."     $2.00,  Longmans 
Eginhard. — "Life  of  Charlemagne."     $.30,  American  Book  Ca 
Fournier,  A.— "Napoleon  the  First."    $2.00,  Holt. 


502  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gardiner,  S.  R.— "The  Thirty  Years'  War."    $1.00,  Scribner. 

Hazen,  C.  D.— "Europe  Since  1815."     $3.00,  Holt. 

Henderson,  E.  F. — "A  Short  History  of  Germany."     $4.00,  Mac- 

millan. 

Johnson,  A.  H. — "The  Normans  in  Europe."    $1.00,  Scribner. 
Lane-Poole,  S.— "The  Speeches  and  Table  Talk  of  the  Prophet 
/  Mohammed."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 

Lowell,  E.  J. — "Eve  of  the  French  Revolution."     $2.00,  Houghton. 
Mathews,  S. — "The  French  Revolution."     $1.25,  Longmans. 
Motley,  J.  L.— "Peter  the  Great."     $.25,  Maynard. 
Munro,  D.  C. — "History  of  the  Middle  Ages."     $.90,  Appleton. 
Munro,  D.  C.,  and  Sellery,  G.  C.— "Medieval  Civilization."   $1.25, 

Century  Co. 

Ploetz,  C. — "Epitome  of  Universal  History."    $3.00,  Houghton. 
Robinson,  J.  H. — "History  of  Western  Europe."    $1.60,  Ginn. 
Robinson,    J.    H. — "Readings   in   European    History,"   abridged. 

$1.50,  Ginn. 
Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Beard,  C.  A. — "Development  of  Modern 

Europe,"  vol.  I,  $1.50;  vol.  II,  $1.60,  Ginn. 
Rose,   J.   H. — "Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era,   1789-1815." 

$1.25,  Macmillan. 
Seignobos,    C. — "History  of   Contemporary   Civilization."     $1.25, 

Scribner. 

Shepherd,  W.  R— "Historical  Atlas."    $2.50,  Holt. 
Skrine,  F.  H. — "Expansion  of  Russia."     $1.50,  Macmillan. 
Thatcher,  O.  J.,  and  McNeal,  E.  H. — "  Source  Book  for  Mediaeval 

History."     $1.85,  Scribner. 

Wakeman,  H.  O. — "European  History,  1598-1715."     $1.40,  Mac- 
millan. 
Walker,  W.— "The  Reformation."    $2.00,  Scribner. 

English  history: 

Allen,  F. — "Anglo-Saxon  Britain."    $1.00,  Young. 
Bateson,  M.— "Medieval  England."     $1.35,  Putnam. 
Besant,  W.— "The  Story  of  King  Alfred."     $.35,  Appleton. 
Cheyney,  E.   P. — "An  Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social 

History  of  England."    $1.40,  Macmillan. 
Cheyney,  E.  P.— "Readings  in  English  History."    $1.80,  Ginn. 
Creighton,  M. — "The  Age  of  Elizabeth."    $1.50,  Longmans. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  503 

Freeman,  E.  A. — "William  the  Conqueror."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Gairdner,  J. — "Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York."     $1.00,  Scribner. 

Gairdner,  J.— "The  English  Church  in  the  Sixteenth  Century." 
$2.00,  Macmillan. 

Gardiner,  S.  R.— "The  First  Two  Stuarts  and  the  Puritan  Revolu- 
tion, 1603-1660."  $1.00,  Longmans. 

Green,  J.  R.— "A  Short  History  of  the  English  People."  $1.20, 
American  Book  Co. 

Green,  Mrs.  J.  R. — "Henry  the  Second."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Harrison,  F. — "Oliver  Cromwell."     $.75,  Macmillan. 

Ilbert,  C. — "Parliament,  Its  History,  Constitution  and  Practice." 
$.75,  Holt. 

Jessopp,  A. — "The  Coming  of  the  Friars."    $1.25,  Putnam. 

Lawless,  E.— "The  Story  of  Ireland."    $1.50,  Putnam. 

Montague,  F.  C. — "The  Elements  of  English  Constitutional  His- 
tory." $1.25,  Longmans. 

Morley,  J. — "Walpole."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Oman,  C.  W.  C. — "Warwick,  the  Kingmaker."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Ransome,  C. — "History  of  England."    $2.25,  Macmillan. 

Rosebery,  Lord.— "Pitt."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Russell,  G.  W.  E.— "William  Ewart  Gladstone."    $1.00,  Harper. 

Scarth,  H.  M. — "Roman  Britain."     $1.00,  Young. 

Stubbs,  W. — "Early  Plantagenets."     $1.00,  Scribner. 

Thursfield,  J.  R.— "Peel."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Traill,  H.  D— "William  the  Third."    $.75,  Macmillan. 

Woodward,  W.  H. — "Short  History  of  the  Expansion  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  1500-1870."  $1.00,  Macmillan. 

United  States  history: 
Brigham,  A.  P. — "Geographic  Influences  in  American  History." 

$1.50,  Ginn. 

Brown,  W.  G. — "Andrew  Jackson."    $.65,  Houghton. 
Burton,  T.  E.— "John  Sherman."     $1.25,  Houghton. 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  vol.  VII,  "The  United  States."    $4.00, 

Macmillan. 
Cheyney,  E.  P. — "European  Background  of  American  History." 

$2.00,  Harper. 
Coman,   K.— "Industrial  History  of  the  United  States."    $1.60, 

Macmillan. 


504  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dodd,  W.  E.— "Statesmen  of  the  Old  South."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Elson,  H.  W.— "History  of  the  United  States."     $1.75,  Macmillan. 

Fiske,  J. — "Beginnings  of  New  England."     $2.00,  Houghton. 

Fiske,  J. — "Critical  Period  of  American  History,  1783-1789." 
$2.00,  Houghton. 

Fiske,  J. — "Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors."  2  vols.,  $4.00, 
Houghton. 

Ford,  P.  L.— "The  Many-Sided  Franklin."     $3.00,  Century  Co. 

Harding,  S.  B. — "Select  Orations  Illustrating  American  History." 
$1.25,  Macmillan. 

Hart,  A.  B. — "Formation  of  the  Union."     $1.25,  Longmans. 

Hart,  A.  B. — "Source  Book  of  American  History."  $.60,  Macmil- 
lan. 

Johnston,  A. — "American  Politics."    $.80,  Holt. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H. — "American  Revolution,"  edited  by  J.  A.  Wood- 
burn.  $1.25,  Appleton.  « 

Lodge,  H.  C. — "George  Washington."     2  vols.,  $2.50,  Houghton. 

Lodge,  H.  C.— "Daniel  Webster."     $1.25,  Houghton. 

MacDonald,  Wm. — "Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  His- 
tory." $1.75,  Macmillan. 

Morse,  J.  T.,  Jr. — "Abraham  Lincoln."    2  vols.,  $2.50,  Houghton. 

Parkman,  F.— "The  Oregon  Trail."     $.40,  Ginn. 

Paxson,  F.  L. — "The  Last  American  Frontier."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Paxson,  F.  L.— "The  Civil  War."    $.75,  Holt. 

Sparks,  E.  E. — "Men  Who  Made  the  Nation."     $2.00,  Macmillan. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.— "Daniel  Boone."     $1.00,  Appleton. 

Thwaites,  R.  G. — "The  Colonies."     $1.25,  Longmans. 

Trent,  W.  P.— "Robert  E.  Lee."     $.75,  Small,  Maynard. 

Wilson,  W. — "Division  and  Reunion."     $1.25,  Longmans. 

Wilson,  W— "The  State."    $2.00,  Heath. 

Wister,  O.  E.— "Ulysses  S.  Grant."    $.75,  Small,  Maynard. 

Civil   government  and   economics  (see  "American    history"  for 

other  titles): 

Baldwin,  S.  E. — "The  American  Judiciary."     $1.25,  Century  Co. 
Bryce,  J. — "The  American  Commonwealth."  2  vols.,  $4.00;  abridged, 

i  vol.,  $1.75,  Macmillan. 

Bullock,  C.  J.— "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Economics."    $1-25, 
Silver,  Burdett. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  505 

Bullock,  C.  J. — "Selected  Readings  in  Economics."    $2.25,  Ginn. 

Commons,  J.  R. — "Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Problems."  $2.00, 
Ginn. 

Dewey,  D.  R. — "Financial  History  of  the  United  States."  $2.00, 
Longmans. 

Ely,  R.  T.— "Socialism  and  Social  Reform."     $1.50,  Crowell. 

Fairlie,  J.  A. — "Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns  and  Vil- 
lages." $1.25,  Century  Co. 

Fairlie,  J.  A.— "The  National  Administration  of  the  United  States." 
$2.50,  Macmillan. 

Fetter,  F.  A. — "Principles  of  Economics."    $2.00,  Century  Co. 

Finley,  J.  H.,  and  Sanderson,  J.  F. — "The  American  Executive." 
$1.25,  Century  Co. 

Fuller,  R.  H. — "Government  by  the  People."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 

Goodnow,  F.  J. — "Municipal  Problems."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Henderson,  C.  R. — "Dependents,  Defectives,  Delinquents."  $1.50, 
Heath. 

Hinsdale,  A.  B. — "The  American  Government."  $1.25,  American 
Book  Co. 

Ilbert,  C. — "Parliament,  Its  History,  Constitution  and  Practice." 
$.75,  Holt. 

Johnson,  E.  R. — "Elements  of  Transportation."    $1.50,  Appleton. 

Macy,  J. — "Party  Organization  and  Machinery."  $1.25,  Century 
•  Co. 

Ostrogorski,  J. — "Democracy  and  the  Party  System."  $1.75, 
Macmillan. 

Plehn,  C.  C. — "Introduction  to  Public  Finance."  $1.75,  Mac- 
millan. 

Reinsch,  P.  S. — "American  Legislature  and  Legislative  Methods." 
$1.25,  Century  Co. 

Scott,  W.  A.— "Money  and  Banking."    $2.00,  Holt. 

Taussig,  F.  W.— "Tariff  History  of  the  United  States."  $1.25, 
Putnam. 

Taylor,  H.  C. — "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Agricultural  Eco- 
nomics." $1.25,  Macmillan. 

Wilcox,  D.  F— "The  American  City."    $1.25,  Macmillan. 

Willoughby,  W.  F. — "Territories  and  Dependencies."  $1.25, 
Century  Co. 


506  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Wines,   F.  H.,  and   Koren,  J.— "The  Liquor  Problem."    $1.25, 

Hough  ton. 
Woodburn,  J.  A. — "The  American  Republic."    $2.00,  Putnam. 

For  the  teacher: 

Allen,  J.  W.— "The  Place  of  History  in  Education."  A  sugges- 
tive discussion  of  what  is  history  and  what  its  values  are  for 
students.  Treats  of  content  of  the  study  rather  than  of 
method  of  teaching. 

Barnes,  Mary  Sheldon.  "Studies  in  Historical  Method."  $.90, 
Heath.  The  author  was  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of  the 
source  method  of  teaching  history,  and  here  presents  dearly 
the  leading  features  of  that  plan. 

Bourne,  Henry  E. — "The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics."  $1.50, 
Longmans.  Because  of  the  wide  scope  of  its  treatment  and 
its  wealth  of  material  and  suggestion,  this  constitutes  the 
most  serviceable  hand-book  for  the  high  school  teacher  of 
these  subjects. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.— "How  to  Study  and  Teach  History."  $1.50, 
Appleton.  When  first  issued,  in  1893,  this  was  one  of  the 
most  useful  books  in  this  field.  It  is  now  somewhat  super- 
seded, yet  still  possesses  serviceableness.  Especially  useful 
are  the  eight  chapters  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  American 
history. 

Johnson,  Henry. — "The  Problem  of  Adapting  History  to  Children 
in  the  Elementary  Schools."  The  author  brings  sound  ped- 
agogical theory,  thorough  historical  scholarship,  and  successful 
experience  in  teaching  to  the  discussion  of  his  subject,  and 
his  book  is  full  of  suggestiveness  for  teachers  in  the  high 
school  as  well  as  for  those  in  the  grades. 

Keatinge,  M.  W.— "Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History."  $1.60, 
Macmillan.  Though  directed  at  English  conditions,  it  has 
for  the  American  teacher  much  that  is  very  suggestive.  The 
setting  of  problems  in  the  teaching  of  history  is  strongly 
presented. 

Mace,  W.  H.— "Method  in  History."  $1.00,  Ginn.  Its  contents 
are  of  varying  value:  not  all  are  to  be  accepted,  but  much 
is  very  helpful. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  507 

Vincent,  John  M. — "Historical  Research.  An  Outline  of  Theory 
and  Practice."  This  for  high  school  teachers  is  the  best 
presentation  in  English  of  the  modern  historical  method. 
It  gives  a  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject,  dealing 
with  the  various  sorts  of  source  material,  with  the  critical 
interpretation  of  historical  evidence  and  the  construction  of 
the  historical  narrative. 

"The  Study  of  History  in  Schools."  A  Report  to  the  American 
Historical  Association  by  a  Committee  of  Seven.  An  in- 
dispensable book  for  the  prospective  teacher  as  during  the 
last  decade  it  has  been  the  greatest  single  influence  in  shap- 
ing text-books,  courses  of  study,  methods,  and  ideals  of  his- 
tory teaching  in  the  high  school. 

"The  Study  of  History  in  the  Secondary  Schools."  A  Report  to 
the  American  Historical  Association  by  a  Committee  of  Five. 
This  committee  was  appointed  ten  years  after  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  to  consider  the  recommenda- 
tions of  that  committee,  and  to  determine  how  far  they  should 
be  modified.  It  constitutes  a  valuable  supplement  to  the 
earlier  report,  and  should  be  used  in  connection  with  it. 

"Report  of  the  Committee  of  Five  of  the  American  Political  Science 
Association  on  Instruction  in  American  Government  in  Sec- 
ondary Schools,"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Association,  1908, 
vol.  V,  pp.  219-57.  This  contains  a  careful  consideration 
of  the  status  of  civics  teaching,  and  presents  recommendations 
as  to  the  course  of  study,  methods  of  teaching,  preparation 
of  teachers,  the  text-book,  and  the  books  for  supplementary 
reading.  Both  the  origin  and  contents  of  this  Report  make  it 
a  very  important  source  of  material  for  the  teachers  of  civics. 

"History  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools."  "Historical  Sources 
in  Schools."  "American  Civil  Government.  An  Outline 
Study  for  Secondary  Schools."  These  are  the  reports  of 
three  committees  of  the  New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association.  The  first  is  a  comprehensive  list  of  topics  and 
references  in  ancient,  mediseval,  modern,  English,  and  Amer- 
ican history,  and  all  are  of  great  service  both  to  the  high  school 
student  and  to  the  teacher.  Each  volume  gives  much  ad- 
vice and  helpful  direction  as  to  the  use  of  the  carefully  selected 
references  which  it  contains. 


508  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Andrews,  C.  M.;  Gambrill,  J.  M.,  and  Tall,  L.  L.— "A  Bibliography 
of  History  for  Schools  and  Libraries."  $.60,  Longmans. 
A  report  of  a  committee  of  the  History  Teachers'  Association 
of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland.  Many  of  the  books 
whose  titles  are  given  are  critically  estimated,  so  that  it  con- 
stitutes a  very  useful  guide  in  determining  what  books  are 
best  adapted  to  the  various  requirements  of  collateral  reading. 
This  report  is  supplemented  each  year  by  the  annual  bibliogra- 
phy issued  by  the  North  Central  History  Teachers' Association. 

The  American  Historical  Review.  This  is  obtained  through  mem- 
bership in  the  American  Historical  Association  which  brings 
also  the  "Annual  Report."  Both  these  are  valuable  for  the 
critical  reviews  and  special  articles. 

The  History  Teachers'  Magazine.  Published  monthly  during  the 
school  year  since  September,  1909,  it  has  been  of  great  value 
to  its  subscribers,  and  its  files  contain  very  much  of  worth  for 
all  teachers  of  history. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

DRAWING,  FREEHAND  AND  MECHANICAL 

Miscellaneous: 

"American  Education  in  Fine  and  Industrial  Art."  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  1885. 

"Art  Education  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States,"  edited 
by  Dr.  James  P.  Haney.  American  Art  Annual,  New  York. 

"Industrial  Drawing  from  the  Standpoint  of  an  Architect,"  Fred- 
erick Law  Olmsted,  Jr.  "Industrial  Drawing  from  the 
Standpoint  of  a  Manufacturer,"  Milton  P.  Higgins.  68th 
Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education, 
1903-4,  pp.  263-76. 

"Upon  Teaching  Design."  James  Hall  in  "Year  Book  of  the 
Council  of  Supervisors,"  vol.  3,  1903. 

FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES: 

Magazines: 
The  International  Studio.     Lane. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  509 

The  School  Arts  Book.    This  is  a  monthly  publication.    School 

Arts  Publishing  Co.,  120  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
The  Manual  Training  Magazine.    Peoria,  111. 

Books: 

Batchelder,  E. — "Principles  of  Design."    $3.00,  Inland  Printer. 
Bennett,  Charles  A. — "Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing."     $1.00, 

Manual  Arts  Press. 
Cadness,  H. — "Decorative  Brush  Work  and  Elementary  Design." 

$1.40,  Scribner. 

Carfin,  C.  H. — "American  Masters  of  Painting."    $1.25,  Double- 
day,  Page. 

Cross,  A.  K. — "Light  and  Shade."    $1.00,  Ginn. 
Day,  L.  F. — "Nature:    The  Raw  Material  of  Ornament."    $2.00, 

Scribner. 
Day,  L.  F.— "Ornament:  The  Finished  Product  of  Nature."    $3.00, 

Scribner. 

Day,  L.  F. — "Nature  in  Ornament."    $5.00,  Scribner. 
Day,  L.  F.— "Pattern  Design."    $3.00,  Scribner. 
Day,  L.  F. — "Ornament  and  Its  Application."    $3.25,  Scribner. 
Day,  L.  F.— "Alphabets  Old  and  New."     $1.25,  Scribner. 
Day,  L.  F. — "Lettering  in  Ornament."     $2.00,  Scribner. 
Fergusson,  J. — "Handbook  of  Architecture  in  All  Ages."    Dodd, 

.    Mead. 

Glazier,  R. — "A  Manual  of  Historic  Ornament."    $2.00,  Scribner. 
Haddon,  A.  C.— "Evolution  of  Art."     $1.50,  Scribner. 
Harrison,  B. — "Landscape  Painting."     $1.50,  Scribner. 
Jackson,  F.  G. — "Lessons  on  Decorative  Design."     $2.00,  Scribner. 
Jackson,  F.  G. — "Theory  and  Practice  of  Design."     $2.50,  Scribner. 
Johnston,    E. — "Writing,    Illuminating    and    Lettering."    $2.00, 

Macmillan. 

Maginnis,  C.  D.— "Pen  Drawing."    $1.00,  Bates  and  Guild. 
Mathewsen,  Frank  E. — "Notes  for  Mechanical  Drawing."    $1.25, 

Taylor-Holden  Co. 

Munsell,  A.  H.— "A  Color  Notation."     $1.00,  Geo.  H.  Ellis. 
Reinach,  S.— "Apollo."    $1.50,  Scribner. 


510  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  XVII 

MUSIC  IN   THE  HIGH   SCHOOL 

i.  Music  in  the  high  school: 

For  further  information  on  what  the  high  school  should  demand  of 
the  grammar  schools,  see  "Report  of  Committee  on  Public 
Schools,"  by  Ralph  L.  Baldwin,  in  Proceedings  Music 
Teachers'  National  Association,  1908. 

For  musical  work  demanded  of  the  high  schools  by  the  colleges,  see 
"Condensed  Report  of  High  School  Music  Courses"  in 
Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1904,  p.  702. 

For  further  publications  on  entrance  requirements  and  reports  on 
experiments  recognizing  independent  instrumental  work  of 
high  school  students  in  Brooldine  and  Chelsea,  see  material 
edited  by  the  New  England  League.  Address  Leo  Rich  Lewis, 
Tufts  College,  Mass. 

For  suggestions  on  conducting  high  school  music,  see  "Music  in 
High  Schools,"  by  O.  McConathy,  in  Proceedings  N.  E. 
A.,  1908,  p.  844,  and  "High  School  Courses;  Appreciation 
Work,"  by  E.  B.  Birge,  in  Proceedings  Music  Teachers1 
National  Association,  1909,  p.  142. 

For  practical  suggestions  for  organizing  and  managing  choruses, 
with  a  selected  list  of  compositions,  see  "Syllabus  for  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  1910,  Music,"  New  York  State  Educational 
Department,  Albany. 

For  suggestions  with  reference  to  organizing  instrumental  clubs, 
write  to  A.  G.  Marshall,  Maidstone  Orchestral  Association, 
Hatton  House,  Hatton  Gardens,  London,  E.  C.  This  Eng- 
lish movement  has  reached  half  a  million  children  and  the 
plan  of  organization  is  worthy  of  study  and  application  to 
American  conditions. 

For  compositions  suitable  for  school  orchestras,  see  classical  and 
popular  lists  published  by  Carl  Fischer,  Fourth  Avenue, 
New  York. 

For  suggestions  with  reference  to  player  pianos,  see  lists  prepared 
by  Leo  Rich  Lewis,  Tufts  College,  Massachusetts,  and  four 
publications  of  the  Aeolian  Co.,  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  511 

"The  Pianola,"  by  Henry  J.  Wood.  "Twenty  Musical 
Evenings,"  by  Henry  T.  Finck.  "The  Pianolist,"  by  Gustav 
Kobbe".  "The  Music  Lovers'  Library." 

For  suggestions  as  to  how  to  awaken  interest  in  instrumental  music, 
see  "Education  through  Music,"  chaps.  XIV  to  XVII,  inclu- 
sive, by  Charles  H.  Farnsworth.  $1.00,  American  Book  Co. 

2.  Books  helpful  for  teachers  and  students  are  as  follows: 

Dictionaries: 

Baker,  Dr.  Theodore. — "A  Biographical  Dictionary  of  Musicians." 
$3.50,  Schirmer. 

Elson,  Lewis  C. — "Elson's  Pocket  Music  Dictionary."  $.35,  Ditson. 
Should  be  owned  by  each  student. 

Grove,  Sir  George. — "Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,"  5  vols., 
Macmillan.  A  library  in  itself. 

Riemann,  Hugo. — "Dictionary  of  Music."  $4.50.  English  trans- 
lation by  J.  S.  Shedlock.  An  admirable  one  volume  ency- 
clopedia. 

Histories: 

Baltzell,  W.  J. — "A  Complete  History  of  Music."  $1.75,  Schirmer. 
Includes  some  portraits  and  musical  examples. 

Dickinson,  Edward. — "A  Study  of  the  History  of  Music."  $2.50, 
Scribner.  A  helpful  guide  for  more  exhaustive  reading. 

Hamilton,  Clarence. — "Outlines  of  Musical  History."  $1.50,  Ditson. 
Helpful  to  those  wishing  to  arrange  a  course  of  historical 
recitals. 

Pratt,  Waldo  S. — "History  of  Music."  $3.00,  Schirmer.  An  ex- 
cellent arrangement  of  material  expressed  through  the  use  of 
different  types. 

Theoretic  and  descriptive: 
Broadhurst,    John. — "Students'    Handbook   of   Acoustics."    Wm 

Reeves,  London.    The  phenomena  of  sound  as  connected 

with  music. 
Crowest,  Frederick  J. — "The  Story  of  Notation."    $1.25,  Scribner. 

Throws  light  on  the  complexities  of  our  notation. 
Elson,  Arthur. — "Music  Club  Programs  from  All  Nations."    $1.25, 

Ditson. 


512  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Hadow,  W.  H.— "Sonata  Form."    Paper,   $1.00;   boards,  $1.25, 

Novello,  Ewer. 

Hale,  Philip. — "Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  Book." 
Lavignac,   Albert. — "Music  and    Musicians."     Edited   by   H.  E. 

Krehbiel.     $3.00,  Holt.     An  excellent  book  of  reference. 
Mason,  Daniel  Gregory. — "The  Orchestra  and  Orchestral  Music." 

A  popular  treatment  of  the  subject. 
Parry,  C.  H.  H.— "The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music."    $1.75, 

Appleton.     An  account  of  the  origin  of  music  that  every  one 

should  read. 
Riemann,  Hugo. — "Catechism  of  Musical  History,"  part  2,  $1.00. 

A  history  of  musical  forms  with  biographical  notices  of  most 

illustrious  composers. 

On  appreciation: 
Dickinson,  Edward. — "The  Education  of  a  Music  Lover."    $1.50, 

Scribner. 
Grove,    Sir   George. — "Beethoven   and   His   Nine   Symphonies." 

$2.40,  Novello,  Ewer. 
Henderson,  W.  H. — "What  is  Good  Music?"    $1.00.     Suggestive 

to  persons  desiring  to  cultivate  a  taste  in  musical  art. 
Kobbe,  Gustav. — "Ring  of  the  Nibelung."     $1.00,  Schirmer.     A 

brief  descriptive  analysis  containing  all  the  leading  motives. 
Krehbiel,  H.  E. — "How  to  Listen  to  Music."     $1.25,  Scribner.     A 

short  and  recent  treatment  of  the  appreciation  of  music. 
Lavignac,  Albert. — "The  Musical  Dramas  of  Richard  Wagner,  and 

His  Festival  Theatre  in  Bayreuth."    $2.50.    Translated  from 

the  French  by  Esther  Singleton. 
Mathews,  W.  S.  B.— "How  to  Understand  Music."    Vol.  I,  $1.50, 

Presser.    One  of  the  oldest  and  best  books  on  the  apprecia- 
tion of  music. 
Surette  and  Mason. — "Appreciation  of  Music."    $1.50,  Novello, 

Ewer. 

Upton,  George  P.— "The  Standard  Operas."    $1.50,  McClurg. 
Upton,  George  P.— "The  Standard  Oratorios."     $1.50,  McClurg. 
Upton,  George  P.— "The  Standard  Symphonies."    $1.50,  McClurg. 
These  three  volumes  by  Upton  are  brief  and  clear  statements  of 
the  subjects  with  which  they  deal. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  513 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

MORAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING 

(Safe  has  been  taken  to  include  books  that  are  comprehensive  and 
suggestive  in  treatment.  Those  wishing  a  more  extended  bibliog- 
raphy are  referred  to  Religious  Education,  vol.  V,  no.  VI. 

i.  Books  and  monographs  dealing  with  the  larger  aspects  of  the 
subject: 

Adler,  Felix.— "The  Moral  Education  of  Children."  $1.50,  Ap- 
pleton.  One  of  the  best-known  books,  but  of  little  value  for 
its  bearing  on  the  subject  in  the  high  school. 

Coe,  George  A. — "Education  in  Religion  and  Morals."  $1.35, 
Revell.  The  emphasis  is  upon  religion  as  including  morals 
and  upon  "the  wholeness  of  life,  from  which  no  human  good 
can  be  excluded." 

DeGarmo,  Charles. — "Principles  of  Secondary  Instruction,"  vol. 
Ill,  "Ethical  Training."  $1.00,  Macmillan.  The  most  sys- 
tematic treatment  accessible  in  English.  An  attempt  "to 
bring  into  clearer  light  the  moral  functions  of  knowledge," 
with  particular  reference  to  the  adolescent. 

Dewey,  John. — "Moral  Principles  in  Education."  $.35,  Houghton. 
Emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  moral  training  that  comes 
from  participation  in  the  life  of  the  school  and  from  methods 
of  instruction.  Opposed  to  direct  ethical  instruction. 

Griggs,  Edward  H. — "Moral  Education."  $2.00,  Huebsch.  As  a 
whole,  very  general  in  treatment.  Chaps.  XVII-XXV  deal 
more  directly  with  the  subject. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley.— "Youth:  Its  Education,  Regimen,  and  Hy- 
giene." $1.50,  Appleton.  An  epitome  of  the  author's  larger 
work  on  adolescence.  Chap.  XII  deals  with  moral  and  re- 
ligious training. 

Hart,  Joseph  K.— "A  Critical  Study  of  Current  Theories  of  Moral 
Education."  $.50,  University  of  Chicago  Press.  A  scholarly 
statement  of  the  need  of  a  reconstructed  education  which 
"will  carry  with  it  its  own  moral  inspirations  and  sanctions." 


514  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Home,  Herman  H. — "Idealism  in  Education."  $1.25,  Macmillan. 
The  theme  is  "man-making."  While  regarding  men  and 
women  as  products  of  heredity  and  environment,  in  chap. 
IV  the  author  puts  emphasis  on  will,  through  which  man 
contributes  to  his  own  making. 

Ladd,  G.  T.— "The  Philosophy  of  Conduct."    $3.50,  Scribner. 

Palmer,  George  H. — "Ethical  and  Moral  Instruction  in  Schools." 
$.35,  Houghton.  Recognizes  the  need  of  ethical  instruction 
and  sees  in  the  life  of  the  school  and  in  good  teaching  the  best 
means.  Opposed  to  formal  ethics  below  the  high  school. 

Rugh,  Charles  E.,  and  others. — "Moral  Training  in  the  Public 
Schools."  The  California  Prize  Essays.  $1.50,  Ginn.  The 
fourth  essay  contains  suggestions  of  practical  value. 

Sadler,  M.  E.  (Editor). — "Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in 
Schools — Report  of  an  International  Inquiry."  2  vols.,  $3.00, 
Longmans.  A  world  view  of  the  subject,  describing  different 
national  policies  for  moral  training. 

Schroeder,  H.  H.— "The  Psychology  of  Conduct."  $1.25,  Row, 
Peterson.  A  practical  treatment  of  the  subject  of  training 
in  social  conduct. 

Seth,  James.— "A  Study  of  Ethical  Principles."  $2.00,  Scribner. 
Traces  the  course  of  ethical  thought  and  presents  a  discussion 
of  the  principles  which  must  underlie  a  system  of  ethics. 

Sisson,  Edward  O. — "The  Essentials  of  Character."  $1.00,  Mac- 
millan. A  forceful,  direct  discussion  of  the  subject  of  char- 
acter as  "springing  from  native  impulses  and  tendencies, 
which  moral  education  must  direct  into  the  service  of  human 
ideals." 

2.  Books  containing  directions  and  material  for  the  application  of 
suggested  lines  of  work: 

Beveridge,  Albert  J.— "The  Young  Man  and  the  World."     $1.50, 

Appleton. 
Bryce,  James. — "The  Hindrances  to  Good  Government."     $1.15, 

Yale  University  Press. 
Cabot,  Mrs.  Ella  L.— "Everyday  Ethics."     $1.25,  Holt.     (See,  by 

the  same  author,  "An  Experiment  in  the  Teaching  of  Ethics," 

Educational  Review,  34  :  434-47.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  515 

Canfield,  James  H  —  "The  College  Student  and  His  Problems." 

$1.00,  Macmillan. 

Coler,  C.  S.— "Character  Building."    $.75,  Hinds,  Noble. 
Davis,  J.  B. — "Plan  for  Vocational  Guidance  in  the  City  of  Grand 

Rapids,"  1910. 

Dole,  Charles  F.— "The  American  Citizen."     $.80,  Heath. 
Drysdale,  William.— "  Helps  for  Ambitious  Girls."     $1.50,  Crowell. 
Dunn,  A.  W.— "The  Community  and  the  Citizen."    $.80,  Heath. 
Eliot,  Charles  W.— "The  Durable  Satisfactions  of  Life."  First  Four 

Essays.    $1.00,  Crowell. 

Everett,  C.  C.— "Ethics  for  Young  People."    $.50,  Ginn. 
Gulick,  Luther  H.— "The  Efficient  Life."    $1.20,  Doubleday,  Page. 
Hadley,  A.  T.— "Standards  of  Public  Morality."    $1.00,   Mac- 
millan. 

Hadley,  A.  T.— "Morals  in  Modern  Business."    $1.25,  Yale  Uni- 
versity Press. 

Hyde,  William  D.  W.— "Practical  Ethics."    $.80,  Holt. 
Jenks,  Jeremiah  W. — "Life  Questions  of  High  School  Boys."    $.40, 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  New  York,  1908. 
Larned,   Joseph   N. — "A  Primer  of  Right  and  Wrong."    $.70, 

Houghton. 

McLeod,  L.  C. — "A  Young  Man's  Problems."    $.50,  Flanagan. 
Markwick,  W.  F.,  and  Smith,  W.  A.— "The  True  Citizen."     $.60, 

American  Book  Co. 

Munger,  Theodore  T.— "On  the  Threshold."     $1.00,  Houghton. 
Parsons,  Frank. — "Choosing  a  Vocation."     $1.00,  Houghton. 
Parton,  James. — "Captains  of  Industry;   or,  Men  of  Business  Who 

Did    Something   Besides  Making   Money."     2  vols.,  $1.25 

each,  Houghton. 
Phillips,  J.  H.— "Old  Tales  and  Modern  Ideals."    $1.00,  Silver, 

Burdett. 

Reich,  Emil.— "Success  in  Life."     $1.50,  Duffield. 
Reid,  Whitelaw,  and   others. — "Careers   for   the   Coming   Men." 

$1.50,  Saalfield. 
Rollins,  Frank  W.— "  What  Can  a  Young  Man  Do  ?  "    $1.50,  Little, 

Brown. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore.— "Applied  Ethics."     William  Belden  Noble 

Lectures,  1910.     $.75,  Harvard  University. 
Root,  Elihu.— "The  Citizen's  Part  in  Government."    $1.00,  Scribner. 


516  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Sharp,  Frank  C. — "Success:  A  Course  in  Moral  Instruction  for  the 
High  School."  Madison,  Wis.,  1909. 

Smiles,  Samuel.— "  Self  -Help. "  Edited  by  R.  H.  Bower.  $.60, 
American  Book  Co. 

Stockwell,  Herbert  G. — "Essential  Elements  of  Business  Charac- 
ter." $.60,  Revell. 

Stoddard,  John  S.— "What  Shall  I  Do?"     $1.00,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Strong,  Josiah.— "The  Times  and  Young  Men."     $.75,  Baker. 

Warner,  B.  E.— "The  Young  Woman  in  Modern  Life."  $.85, 
Dodd,  Mead. 

Washington,  Booker  T. — "Character  Building."  $1.50,  Double- 
day,  Page. 

Weaver,  E.  W.  (Chairman  of  Committee). — "Choosing  a  Career:  A 
Circular  of  Information  for  Boys."  Prepared  for  the  High 
School  Teachers'  Association,  New  York  City,  1909.  A 
similar  circular  is  issued  for  girls. 

Wilbur,  Mary  A. — "Every-day  Business  for  Women,"  chap.  XVIII. 
$1.25,  Houghton. 

Wilson,  Calvin  D. — "Making  the  Most  of  Ourselves."  First  and 
Second  Series.  $1.00,  McClurg. 

Wingate,  Charles  F.— "What  Shall  Our  Boys  Do  for  a  Living?" 
$1.00,  Doubleday,  Page. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

(The  books  marked  with  an  asterisk  deal  with  the  more  general  phases 
of  hygiene  and  physical  education,  and  might  with  profit  be  read  by 
high  school  pupils.) 

*Allen,  W.  H.— "Civics  and  Health."     $1.25,  Ginn.     An  excellent 

book. 
Bancroft,  J.  H. — "Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School,  and 

Gymnasium."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 
*Chittenden,  R.  H. — "Studies  in  Physiological  Chemistry."     $4.00, 

Scribner. 

*Clouston,  T.  S.— "The  Hygiene  of  Mind."     $2.50,  Dutton. 
Dawson,  W.  H. — "School  Doctors  in  Germany,"  London,  1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  517 

*Dudley,  G.,  and  Kellor,  F.  A.— "Athletic  Games  for  Women." 
$1.25,  Holt. 

*Fisher,  Irving. — "National  Vitality:  Its  Wastes  and  Conservation." 
"Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,"  vol.  Ill, 
pp.  620-751,  Washington,  1909.  A  very  important  contribu- 
tion; thorough  discussion  of  the  unnecessary  economic  loss 
from  disease,  etc. 

*Gulick,  L.  H. — "Physical  Education  by  Muscular  Exercise." 
$.75,  Blakiston.  A  valuable  book. 

Gulick,  L.  H.,  and  Ayres,  L.  P. — "Medical  Inspection  of  Schools." 
$1.00,  Charities  Publication. 

*Gulick  Hygiene  Series.  Ginn.  Intended  primarily  for  use  in  the 
grades,  but  read  with  interest  and  profit  by  high  school  pupils. 

Henderson,  C.  H.— "Education  with  Reference  to  Sex."  The 
Eighth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific 
Study  of  Education,  Chicago,  1909.  An  excellent  discussion 
of  the  different  aspects  of  this  subject.  It  contains  a  good 
bibliography. 

Hogarth,  A.  H. — "Medical  Inspection  of  Schools,"  London,  1909. 
A  good  discussion  of  medical  inspection  in  England. 

Hunt,  Caroline  L.— "The  Daily  Meals  of  School  Children,"  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  3,  1909. 

Johnson,  G.  E. — "Education  by  Plays  and  Games."    $.90,  Ginn. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.,  and  Bigelow,  M.  A. — "The  Teaching  of  Biology  in 
the  Secondary  Schools."  $1.50,  Longmans.  It  contains  a 
good  chapter  on  the  teaching  of  physiology. 

*Mero,  E.  B. — "American  Playgrounds."  $1.50,  American  Gym- 
nasia Co. 

Porter,  Charles. — "School  Hygiene  and  the  Laws  of  Health." 
Longmans. 

"Proceedings  of  the  Conference  on  the  Teaching  of  Hygiene  and 
Temperance  in  the  Universities  and  Schools  of  the  British 
Empire,"  London,  1907. 

"Proceedings  and  Year  Book  of  the  Playground  Association  of 
America,"  for  1907,  1908,  and  1909,  New  York. 

"Proceedings  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Congresses  of  the 
American  School  Hygiene  Association,"  Springfield,  1910. 

"Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hy- 
giene Association,"  Springfield,  1910. 


518  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Reports  of  the  International  Congress  of  School  Hygiene: 

"Bericht  ueber  den  I.  International  Kongress  fur  Schulhygiene," 
Niirnberg,  1904. 

"Transactions  of  the  Second  International  Congress  on  School  Hy- 
giene," London,  1907. 

"III.     Congres  International  d'Hygiene  Scholaire,"  Paris,  1910. 

*Sargent,  D.  A.— "Physical  Education."     $1.50,  Ginn. 

School  Science  and  Mathematics,  10  vols.,  Chicago,  1901-1910. 
Contains  a  number  of  excellent  articles  on  the  teaching  of 
physiology. 

Welpton,  W.  P.— "Physical  Education  and  Hygiene."  $1.75,  W.  B. 
Clive,  London,  1908. 

*Wood,  T.  H.— "Health  and  Education."  The  Ninth  Year  Book 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Chicago, 
1910.  Strong  chapters  on  "Health  Instruction"  and  "Phys- 
ical Education." 


CHAPTER  XX 

SEX  PEDAGOGY  IN  THE   HIGH  SCHOOL 

Acher. — "The  Psychology,  Pedagogy,  and  Hygiene  of  Sex  Develop- 
ment." 

Cramer,  A. — "Pubertat  und  Schule,"  Leipzig. 

Dock,  Lavinia. — "Hygiene  and  Morality."     Putnam. 

Eckstein,  E. — "Die  Sexualfrage  in  der  Erziehung  des  Kindes." 

Forel,  A. — "Die  Sexuelle  Frage." 

Fiirth,  H. — "Die  geschlechtliche  Aufklarung  in  Haus  und  Schule." 

Hall,  G.  S. — "Educational  Problems,"  vol.  I,  chap.  VII,  Appleton. 

Henderson,  C.  R. — "Eighth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,"  1909. 

Holler,  K. — "Die  Sexuelle  Frage  und  die  Schule,"  Leipzig. 

Moll,  A.— "Die  Sexuelle  Erziehung."  Zeitsch.  f.  pad  Psy.  Path, 
und  Hygiene,  1908. 

Parkinson,  W.  D. — "Sex  and  Education."  Educational  Review, 
Jan.  i,  1911. 

Renault,  J. — "Comment  preparer  1'enfant  an  respect  des  questions 
sexuelles."  Education  Familiale,  vol.  VIII,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  519 

Sarason,  D. — "Zum  Problem  der  Sexual-belehrung."    Zeitsch.  f. 

Schulgesundheitspflege,  vol.  XX,  1907. 
Schmidt,  B.— "In  Zeitsch.  f.  lateinlose  hohere  Schulen,"  vol.  XVII, 

1905-6. 

Kongress  der  deutschen   Gesellschaft  zum   Bekampfung  der   Ge- 

schlectskrankheiten,  Sexualpadagogik,  Barth,  Leipzig,  1907. 
Articles  by  Mast,  Kleinschmidt,  Siebert,  and  others  in  Natur  und 

Schule,  Leipzig,  1906. 
Articles  in  Mutterschutz,  Zeitschr.  f.  Kinderforschung,  Zeitschr.  /. 

Schulgesundheitspflege,  Die  Neue  Generation,  and  Die  Neue 

Deutsche  Schule. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

AGRICULTURE 

The  literature  of  agricultural  education  in  secondary  schools  con- 
sists largely  of  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  short  articles,  addresses,  and  committee  reports  to  be 
found  in  educational  journals  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association.  The  few  more  pretentious  works  and 
their  principal  characteristics  are  here  noted: 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde. — "On  the  Training  of  Persons  to  Teach 
Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools."  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  No.  i,  1908.  Pp.  52.  Has  a  good  bibli- 
ography. 

Bricker,  Garland  Armor. — "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the 
High  School."  $1.00,  Macmillan.  The  latest  work  devoted 
mainly  to  pedagogical  phases  of  the  problem.  Teaching 
principles  well  illustrated  by  sample  exercises. 

Davenport,  Eugene. — "Education  for  Efficiency."  $1.00,  Heath. 
Pp.  184,  1909.  Part  I  is  a  series  of  addresses  on  general 
phases  of  industrial  education  and,  in  part,  an  argument 
against  the  establishment  of  special  agricultural  high  schools. 
Part  II  treats  of  agriculture  as  a  part  of  the  curriculum. 


520  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Davis,  Benjamin  Marshall. — Series  of  articles  in  Elementary  School 
Teacher,  vols.  X  and  XI,  on  various  phases  and  agencies  of 
agricultural  education.  Also  has  a  good  bibliography.  Is- 
sued in  book  form  by  University  of  Chicago  Press,  under 
title  of  "Recent  Developments  in  Agricultural  Education." 

Jewell,  James  Ralph. — "Agricultural  Education."  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  2,  1907.  Chapters  on 
secondary  and  other  phases  of  the  subject.  Gives  a  general 
view  of  the  foreign  field  and  bibliography  complete  to  the 
date  of  issue. 

Main,  Josiah. — "Educational  Agriculture."  Issued  as  a  bulletin 
of  the  State  Normal  School,  Hays,  Kansas.  Pp.  74,  1910. 
Principally  a  discussion  of  the  psychological  basis  of  agri- 
cultural instruction.  Furnishes  excellent  lists  for  laboratory 
equipment. 

Robison,  Clarence  Hall. — "Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  High 
Schools  of  the  United  States."  $1.50.  Columbia  University 
Contributions  to  Education,  Teachers  College  Series.  Pp. 
205,  1911.  Descriptive  and  statistical  treatment  of  the  move- 
ment. Bibliography  brought  down  to  1911  and  arranged  for 
topical  reference. 

Most  prominent  among  the  many  works  written  for  reference,  gen- 
eral reading,  and  for  use  in  the  colleges,  are  those  edited  by 
Bailey:  "The  Rural  Science  Series,"  the  "Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Agriculture"  (Macmillan),  and  the  "Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Horticulture"  (Macmillan). 


CHAPTER  XXII 

COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  upon  the  subject  of  commercial 
education.  The  articles  mentioned  in  the  following  references  will 
enable  one  to  obtain  a  good  general  idea  of  the  current  thought  on 
the  subject.  These  articles  cover  practically  all  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject, not  only  of  commercial  education  in  general,  but  also  a  consid- 
erable number  of  special  features  of  the  subject. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  521 

Clark,  G.  A. — "Commercial  Branches  in  the  High  School  Curricu- 
lum." Educational  Review,  June,  1909. 

Currv,  James  S. — "Past,  Present,  and  Future  of  Commercial  Edu- 
cation."  Journal  National  Education  Association,  1910. 

DeGarmo,  Charles. — "Methods  of  Preparing  Teachers  of  Commer- 
cial Schools  in  Germany."  Journal  National  Education 
Association,  1908. 

Ellis,  C.  B. — "Purpose  of  a  Good  Business  Department  in  a  Public 
High  School."  School  Review,  Feb.,  1903. 

Garbutt,  J.  R.— "The  High  School  Commercial  Course:  Its  Sub- 
jects, Their  Practical  and  Educational  Value."  Journal 
National  Education  Association,  1908. 

Green,  J.  M. — "The  Relation  between  General  and  Commerical 
Education."  Journal  National  Education  Association,  1907. 

Herrick,  Cheesman  A. — "Commercial  Education  as  a  Branch  of 
Vocational  Training."  Journal  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, 1910. 

Herrick,  Cheesman  A. — "Preparation  and  Improvement  of  Commer- 
cial Teachers."  Journal  National  Education  Association,  1908. 

Irish,  C.  W. — "Place  of  Commercial  Studies  in  the  High  School." 
School  Review,  Sept.,  1902. 

Lakey,  Frank  E. — "How  to  Make  Commercial  Courses  More  Effi- 
cient." Journal  National  Education  Association,  1910. 

Laughlin,     J.     S. — "Higher    Commercial    Education."    Atlantic 
Monthly,  May,  1902. 

Person,  H.  S.— "Professional  Training  for  Business."  World's 
Work,  May,  1904. 

Pitman,  J.  A. — "The  Education  and  Professional  Training  of  Com- 
mercial Teachers."  Journal  National  Education  Association, 
1910. 

Stevenson,  W.  C. — "Qualification  of  Commercial  Teachers."  Jour- 
nal National  Education  Association,  1905. 

Walker,  J.  Brisben. — "What  Should  Be  the  Education  of  a  Business 

Man?"    Journal  National  Education  Association,  1905. 
The  annual  reports  for  the  past  ten  years  of  the  National  Commer- 
cial Teachers'  Federation  contain  a  vast  amount  of  interesting  and 

valuable  material  on  practically  every  phase  of  commercial  educa- 
tion.   Information  as  to  these  reports  may  be  obtained  from  Mr. 

J.  C.  Walker,  secretary  of  the  Federation,  Detroit,  Mich. 


522  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

VOCATIONAL   TRAINING    IN    THE    HIGH    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    RELATION 
TO  MANUAL  TRAINING 

Bloomfield,  Meyer. — "The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth."  River- 
side Educational  Monographs.  $.35,  Houghton. 

Dean,  A.  D.— "The  Worker  and  the  State."  $1.20,  Century  Co. 
The  best  single  treatise  on  the  need  of  industrial  education  in 
the  United  States.  Contains  a  valuable  bibliography. 

Gillette,  J.  M. — "Vocational  Education."  $1.00,  American  Book 
Co.  A  somewhat  philosophical  treatment  of  the  subject, 
showing  the  influence  on  society  of  vocational  training. 

Kerschensteiner,  George. — "Education  for  Citizenship."  $1.00, 
Rand,  McNally. 

Kimball. — "Industrial  Education."  Published  by  School  of  Edu- 
cation, Cornell  University,  1911,  $.50. 

Parsons,  F. — "Choosing  a  Vocation."     $1.00,  Houghton. 

Wright,  C.  D.— "The  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States." 
$1.25,  Scribner. 

"  Report  of  Committee  on  the  Place  of  Industries  in  Public  Educa- 
tion," submitted  to  the  National  Council  of  Education,  July, 
1910.  Published  in  Proceedings  0}  National  Education  As- 
sociation, Winona,  Minnesota,  1910.  A  most  comprehensive 
and  valuable  report,  combining  the  historical,  theoretical, 
and  practical  aspects  of  the  subject. 

"Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  the  City  of  Bos- 
ton," 1910.  An  interesting  statement  of  the  progressive  steps 
taken  in  the  direction  of  vocational  training  by  the  city  of 
Boston. 

''Bulletins  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 
Education,"  Nos.  1-13:  especially  No.  2,  "Selected  Bibliog- 
raphy on  Industrial  Education;"  No.  u,  "A  Descriptive  List 
of  Trade  and  Industrial  Schools  in  the  United  States;" 
No.  12,  "Legislation  upon  Industrial  Education  in  the  United 
States;"  No.  14,  "The  Trade  Continuation  Schools  of  Mu- 
nich." Published  by  the  Society,  20  West  44th  Street,  New 
York  City. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  523 

"Report  of  Special  Committee  on  Industrial  Education,"  submitted 
to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  Toronto,  Nov.,  1909. 
Published  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

"Report  of  Michigan  State  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Agricul- 
tural Education,"  Dec.,  1910.  Published  by  the  Commission, 
S.  O.  Hartwell,  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  secretary. 

"Report  of  Special  Investigation  of  Industrial  Education  by  De- 
partment of  Commerce  and  Labor."  Washington,  D.  C.,  1911. 

"Industrial  Education,"  in  Teachers  College  Record,  September, 
1911,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  $.30. 

"Report  of  Commission  Upon  Plans  for  the  Extension  of  Industrial 
and  Agricultural  Training  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin."  Pub- 
lished by  The  Commission,  Madison,  Wis.,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

PRACTICAL  ARTS  FOR  GIRLS 

Economics  of  clothing: 
Dooley.— "Textiles."     $1.00,  Heath. 
Richards,  Ellen  H.— "The  Cost  of  Living."    $1.00,  Wiley. 

Home  sanitation: 

Gulick,  Charlotte  V.— "Emergencies."    $.40,  Ginn. 
Jewett,  Frances  G.— "Town  and  City."    $.50,  Ginn. 
Osborne,  Charles  Francis. — "The  Family  House."    $1.00,  Perm 

Pub.  Co. 
Terrill,  Bertha  M. — "Household  Management."    $1.25,  From  the 

Library  of  Home  Economics,  The  American  School  of  Home 

Economics,  Chicago. 
Wilbur,    Mary    A. — "Every-day    Business   for   Women."    $1.25, 

Houghton. 

House  furnishing: 

Daniels,  Fred.  H. — "Furnishing  a  Modest  Home."     $1.00,  Davis 
Press. 


524  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Social  relations  and  conduct: 

Bishop,  Emily  M.— "Daily  Ways  to  Health."     $1.50,  Huebsch. 
Conyington,  Mary. — "How  to  Help."     $1.50,  Macmillan. 
Jewett,  Frances  G.— "Good  Health."     $.40,  Ginn. 
Learned,  Mrs.  Frank. — "Etiquette  of  New  York  To-day."     $1.25, 

Stokes. 
Learned,  Mrs.  Frank. — "Moral  Instruction  in  the  Ethical  Culture 

School,"  Edited  by  Superintendent  Lewis,  Central  Park  West 

and  63d  Street,  New  York. 

Recreation  and  enjoyment: 
Bancroft,  Jessie  H. — "Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School, 

and  Gymnasium."     $1.50,  Macmillan. 
Blanchan,   Neltje—  "Nature's   Garden"    (Wild  Flowers).    $3.00, 

Doubleday,  Page. 

Henderson,  W.  J. — "What  is  Good  Music."    $1.00,  Scribner. 
Krehbiel,  H.  E. — "How  to  Listen  to  Music."     $1.25,  Scribner. 
Martin,  Martha  Evans. — "The  Friendly  Stars."     $1.25,  Harper. 
Miller,  Olive  Thorne.— "First  Book  of  Birds."     $1.00,  Houghton. 
Parkhurst,  H.  E.— "The  Birds'  Calendar."     $1.50,  Scribner. 
Upton,  G.  P.— "The  Standard  Operas."     $1.50,  McClurg. 
Upton,  G.  P.— "The  Standard  Symphonies."     $1.50,  McClurg. 
Van  Dyke,  John  C.— "How  to  Judge  a  Picture."     $.60,  Hunt  and 

Eaton. 
White,  Mary.— "How  to  Make  Baskets."    First  and  Second  Books. 

$1.00,  Doubleday,  Page. 
White,    Mary.— "Handbook    of    Sports."     Girls'    Branch    Public 

Schools  Athletic  League  of  New  York  City.     Spalding. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

PSYCHOLOGY  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  historical  aspect: 
Brown,  E.  E.— "The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,"  chapters  on 

academies.     $3.00,  Longmans. 
Calkins,  M.  W.— "Introduction  to  Psychology,"  chap.  XXVIIL 

$2.00,  Macmillan. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  525 

Kiilpe,  O. — "Outlines  of  Psychology,"  Introduction.    $2.60,  Mac- 

millan. 
Villa. — "Contemporary  Psychology,"  chap.  I.    $2.75,  Macmillan. 

FOR  CLASS  ROOM  USE: 

Several  are  mentioned  which  would  not  be  complete  enough  for 
use  as  the  text-book  basis  of  a  course,  although  they  are  valuable 
for  high  school  use. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.— "Story  of  the  Mind."    $.35,  Appleton. 
Betts,  G.  H.— "The  Mind  and  Its  Education."    $1.25,  Appleton. 
Charters,  W.  W.— "Methods  of  Teaching."     $1.10,  Row,  Peterson. 
Harvey,  N.  A. — "Principles  of  Teaching."     $1.25,  Row,  Peterson. 
James,  William.— "Talks  to  Teachers."    $1.50,  Holt. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.— "Fundamentals  of  Child  Study."    $1.25,  Mac- 
millan. 
McKenny,  C.— "The  Personality  of  the  Teacher."    $1.00,  Row, 

Peterson. 

McMurry,  C.— "How  to  Study."    $1.25,  Houghton. 
O'Shea,  M.  V. — "Education  as  Adjustment."    $1.50,  Longmans. 
Thorndike,  E.  L. — "Human  Nature  Club."    $1.25,  Longmans. 
Titchener,  E.  B—  "Primer  of  Psychology."    $1.00,  Macmillan. 
Wenzlaff,  G.  G.— "The  Mental  Man."    $1.10,  Merrill. 

There  are  special  chapters  in  Dewey's  "How  We  Think"  and  in 
Miller's  "Psychology  of  Thinking,"  especially  those  which  make 
practical  for  education  the  doctrines  of  functional  psychology  that 
ire  simple  enough  for  high  school  use. 

I  am  inclined  to  recommend  to  high  school  teachers  of  psychology 
iither  the  book  by  Betts  or  that  by  Wenzlaff  as  the  basis  of  the 
course  and  then  to  group  around  this  most  closely  special  selections 
/rom  McMurry,  Dewey,  Miller,  Charters,  and  James,  reaching  out 
jnto  other  books  according  as  these  may  not  supply  the  material 
wanted  in  the  course. 

For  the  teacher: 

Angell,  J.  R— "Psychology."    $1.50,  Holt. 
Bolton,  F.  E. — "Principles  of  Education."     $3.00,  Scribner. 
Calkins,  M.  W. — "A  First  Book  in  Psychology."     $1.90,  Macmillan. 
Calkins,  M.  W. — "Introduction  to  Psychology."    $2.00,  Macmillan. 


526  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dewey,  J.— "How  We  Think."     $1.00,  Heath. 

Ebbinghaus,  H. — "Psychology  :  An  Elementary  Text-Book."  $1.20, 
Heath. 

Hall,  G.  S.— "Youth."    $1.50,  Appleton. 

Henderson,  E.  N. — "Principles  of  Education."     $1.75,  Macmillan. 

Home. — "Philosophy  of  Education."    $1.50,  Macmillan. 

Judd,  C.  H. — "Psychology:  General  Introduction."  $1.50,  Scribner. 

King,  I. — "Psychology  of  Child  Development."  $1.00,  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A. — "Genetic  Psychology."    $1.25,  Macmillan. 

McDougall,  W. — "Introduction  to  Social  Psychology."   $1.50,  Luce. 

Miller,  I.  E. — "Psychology  of  Thinking."     $1.25,  Macmillan. 

Morgan,  C.  Lloyd. — "Animal  Behavior."    $2.50,  Longmans. 

Morgan,  C.  Lloyd. — "Psychology  for  Teachers."     $1.25,  Scribner. 

Ribot,  T.— "Psychology  of  the  Emotions."    $1.50,  Scribner. 

Romanes. — "Animal  Intelligence."    $1.75,  Appleton. 

Ruediger,  W.  C. — "Principles  of  Education."     $1.25,  Houghton. 

Scott,jW.  D. — "  Psychology  of  Advertising."    $2.00,  Small,  Maynard. 

Seashore,  C.  E. — "Elementary  Experiments  in  Psychology."  $1.00, 
Holt. 

Stout,  G.  F.— "Manual  of  Psychology."     $1.50,  Hinds,  Noble. 

Swift,  E.  J.— "Mind  in  the  Making."     $1.50,  Scribner. 

Titchener,  E.  B.— "A  Text-Book  in  Psychology."  $2.00,  Macmil- 
lan. 

Washburn,  M.  F.— "The  Animal  Mind."    $1.60,  Macmillan. 

Witmer,  L. — "Analytic  Psychology."    $1.50,  Ginn. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

Lists  of  books  suitable  for  high  school  libraries  have  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Minnesota  Public  School  Library  Commission,  the 
Departments  of  Public  Instruction  of  North  Dakota  and  New  Jersey, 
the  Oregon  Library  Commission,  and  the  Education  Department 
of  Wisconsin.  The  list  published  by  the  Public  Library  of  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  entitled  "Something  to  Read  for  Boys  and  Girls,"  1908, 
will  be  found  useful  in  high  school  work.  The  Free  Public  Libraiy 


X 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  527 

of  Newark,  N.  J.,  has  published  a  list  of  books  in  the  library  of  the 
Ballinger  High  School,  Newark,  entitled  "Reading  for  Pleasure  and 
Profit."  "The  Practical  Use  of  Books  and  Libraries,"  by  Gilbert 
O.  Ward,  Supervisor  of  High  School  Branches,  Cleveland  Public 
Library,  published  by  the  Boston  Book  Co.,  1911,  is  an  excellent 
manual  to  put  into  the  hands  of  high  school  students.  A  teaching 
outline  to  accompany  this  work  is  issued  separately. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  of  help  in  the  preparation  of  the  fol- 
lowing list  is  made  to  Miss  Mary  E.  Hall,  librarian,  Girls'  High 
School,  Brooklyn,  who  has  done  much  to  better  conditions  in  our 
high  school  libraries. 

Abbot,  A. — "Reading  of  High  School  Pupils."  School  Review, 
10  :  585.  Statistical  tables  made  up  from  a  list  of  178  "best 
books"  submitted  to  some  2,500  high  school  pupils  for  a  vote 
as  to  their  popularity.  A  black  list  is  made  up  of  books 
which  received  the  largest  number  of  votes  of  disapproval, 
also  a  reading  list  of  books  which  proved  the  most  popular. 
Interesting  deductions  are  submitted  as  to  the  kinds  of  books 
boys  and  girls  like  at  various  stages  of  high  school  develop- 
ment. 

Aley,  Robert  J. — "Books  and  High  School  Pupils.1'  Proceedings, 
N.  E.  A.,  1009,  844-48. 

Ames,  A.  S.,  and  Rathbone,  J.  A. — "Instruction  in  the  Use  of  Refer- 
ence Books  and  Libraries  in  the  High  Schools."  Library 
Journal,  1898,  23  :  c.  86-91.  Account  of  library  work  done  in 
Mt.  Vernon  Seminary  and  Pratt  Institute  High  School;  also 
answers  to  questions  on  library  work  in  high  schools. 

Anthony,  J.  B. — "Books  as  Tools."  Chautauquan,  May,  1900, 
31  :  143.  Indicates  some  of  the  most  useful  reference  books 
needed  by  a  village  library,  with  prices  and  reasons  for  the 
choice. 

Ashmun,  M. — "Library  Reading  in  the  High  School."  School 
Review,  17  :  618-22  and  701-4,  Dec.  and  Nov.,  1909,  and 
Mar.,  1910.  Practical  suggestions  as  to  how  to  conduct  li- 
brary reading  classes  in  the  high  school,  the  amount  of  read- 
ing required,  and  the  kind  of  books  selected.  Use  of  pictures 
recommended,  portraits  of  authors,  photographs  of  places 
described  make  the  work  interesting.  Avoid  monotony. 


528  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Atkinson,  F.  W. — "Reading  of  Young  People."  Library  Journal, 
1908,  33  :  129-34.  Shows  the  need  of  library  guidance 
through  the  high  school  period  to  keep  the  pupils'  reading 
up  to  standards  set  in  grammar  school. 

Bates,  W.  H  —  "The  Library  as  an  Aid  to  School  Work."  School 
Review,  1899,  7  :  179.  The  education  which  has  not  taught 
the  student  the  love  of  reading  is  not  a  success.  The  student 
must  acquire  the  ability  to  recognize  good  books  and  the 
habit  of  reading  them.  But  the  average  student  will  hardly 
reach  the  best  results  without  careful  guidance  and  seasonable 
suggestions. 

Bishop,  W.  W. — "School  Libraries  and  Public  Libraries."  Public 
Libraries,  1896,  i :  95.  A  plea  for  independent  school  libra- 
ries. 

Bostwick,  A.  E—  "The  Library  and  the  School."  ("The  American 
Public  Library,"  1910,  pp.  95-107.)  Discusses  school  libra- 
ries, school  work  in  libraries,  model  school  collections,  Sun- 
day-schools, text-books,  and  selective  education. 

Dana,  J.  C—  "Book-Using  Skill  in  Higher  Education,"  A.  L.  A. 
Bulletin,  No.  3,  191-95  (S.  1909).  Crying  need  of  instruction 
in  the  use  of  the  library  for  the  pupils  of  high  schools,  normal 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities. 

Dorey,  Milnor.— "What  Are  Our  High  School  Pupils  Reading?" 
School  Review,  1907,  15  :  299. 

Elmendorf,  H.  L. — "Some  Things  a  Boy  of  Seventeen  Should  Have 
an  Opportunity  to  Read."  American  Monthly  Review  0} 
Reviews,  1903,  28  :  713.  Suggestions  to  parents,  teachers,  and 
librarians  as  to  what  books  a  boy  should  read  and  the  time 
and  the  manner  in  which  his  attention  should  be  called  to 
them. 

Finney,  B.  A. — "High  School  Instruction  in  Use  of  Reference 
Books."  Public  Libraries,  1899,  4  :  3I5~I7-  Urges  such  in- 
struction and  outlines  a  course. 

Fletcher,  M.  S.— "Instruction  to  High  School  Students  in  the  Use 
of  a  Library."  Library  Journal,  1904,  29  :  481.  An  ac- 
count of  the  library  work  done  in  the  Jamestown  High 
School. 

Gaillard,  E.  W.— "The  Difficulty  of  the  High  School  Library" 
School  Review,  1907,  15  :  245. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  529 

Hall,  M.  E.— "What  the  Librarian  May  Do  for  the  High  School." 
Library  Journal,  1909,  34  :  154.  Suggests  ways  in  which  the 
school  librarian  may  help  the  teachers,  interest  the  pupils,  and 
make  the  library  an  effective  department. 

Haney,  J.  D.— "How  Shall  the  Public  Libraries  Help  the  High 
School?"  Public  Libraries,  1902,  7  :  224.  Advocates 
branch  libraries  in  high  schools  superintended  by  trained 
librarian. 

"High  School  Library  Problem."    School  Review,  1906,  14  :  762. 

Holland,  E.  O. — "The  Library  as  an  Adjunct  to  the  Secondary 
School."  Proceedings,  N.E.A.,  1903,  961-66.  Teacher  and 
librarian  to  teach  student  to  do  as  definite  laboratory  work  in 
the  library  as  in  the  sciences,  to  supplement  the  poverty  of 
the  school  text  with  the  riches  of  the  library.  Since  most  of 
us  must  be  imitators,  students  should  be  taught  to  know  and 
emulate  the  world's  best  men.  Graduates  of  high  schools,  as 
a  result  of  their  education  and  culture,  should  be  able  to 
improve  social  and  political  conditions  of  city  or  country. 

Hopkins,  Florence  M. — "Library  Work  in  High  Schools."  Public 
Libraries,  1905,  10  :  170.  Gives  outline  of  work  done  in 
Detroit  Central  High  School. 

Hopkins,  Florence  M. — "Methods  of  Instruction  in  the  Use  of 
High  School  Libraries."  Proceedings,  N.  E.  A.,  1905,  858. 
A  well-selected  and  well-catalogued  library  is  a  university  for 
the  people  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  high  school  to  train  pupils 
to  appreciate  these  library  universities.  In  Detroit  Central 
High  School  they  have  systematized  the  teaching  of  simple 
reference  points,  one  English  lesson  a  term  being  devoted  to 
the  study  of  library  aids. 

Hopkins,  Florence  M. — "The  Place  of  the  Library  in  High  School 
Education."  Library  Journal,  Feb.,  1910,  35  :  55-60. 
Points  out  the  great  lack  and  greater  need  of  systematic  in- 
struction in  the  use  of  reference  books  and  reference  guides. 
Outlines  briefly  a  course  of  eight  simple  lessons. 

Johnston,  W.  D. — "The  Library  as  a  Reinforcement  of  the  School." 
Proceedings  of  the  Forty-seventh  University  Convocation  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  Oct.,  1909.  N.  Y.  (State)  Education 
Department,  Bulletin  No.  460,  Dec.,  1909.  American  Edu- 
cation, 13  :  208-11.  The  library  must  be  recognized  as  an 


530  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

integral  part  of  the  educational  system,  not  merely  an  adjunct 
to  the  school,  but  a  complement  to  it.  It  is  recommended 
that  the  superintendent  of  schools  be  a  member  of  the  board 
of  library  trustees  and  that  the  librarian  be  a  member  of  the 
school  board.  The  value  of  collateral  and  vacation  reading 
is  discussed. 

Jones,  Ralph  K.— "A  Problem  of  the  College  and  School  Library." 
Library  Journal,  Jan.,  1912,  37  :  22-23.  Gives  figures  show- 
ing that  the  schools  are  sending  to  college  and  into  the  world 
graduates  untrained  in  the  use  of  libraries  and  not  given  to 
their  habitual  use,  and  urges  the  establishment  in  every  school 
of  a  library  which  shall  contain  suitable  reference  books.  Co- 
operation between  the  public  library  and  the  school  libraries 
should  be  expected  and  required. 

Judd,  C.  H.— "The  School  and  the  Library."  Elementary  Sdiool 
Teacher,  Sept.,  1910,  n  :  28-35;  also  in  A.  L.  A.  Bulletin, 
Sept.,  1910,  4  :  607-11.  Suggests  the  use  of  the  "study 
period"  for  work  in  the  library. 

Matthews,  Brander. — "Books  and  Boys."  Independent,  67  :  1117- 
19,  Nov.  18,  1909.  Plea  not  to  expect  passionate  and  en- 
thusiastic admiration  from  college  students  of  the  master- 
pieces, literature  not  suited  to  their  years  or  experience,  but 
to  lead  them  to  read  those  books  which  a  healthy,  manly 
taste  demands. 

Miner,  L.  B.— "Voluntary  Reading  in  the  English  High  School." 
School  Review,  1905, 13 : 180.  The  "  chief  end  "  of  pupfls  in  the 
English  high  school  is  not  college,  but  culture  and  self-support. 
The  majority  come  from  poor,  illiterate  homes  and  do  much 
outside  work.  What  is  most  needed  is  a  public  school  Car- 
negie. A  book  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  stack.  One 
of  the  best  methods  of  arousing  interest  is  to  read  one  or  two 
wily  selections  and  then  offer  to  loan  the  book.  Having  a 
recitation  period  for  the  reading  club  to  talk  over  voluntary 
reading  and  give  reports  is  satisfactory. 

New  York  Library  Association.  Committee  on  High  School  Li- 
braries. Report  on  the  high  school  libraries  of  New  York 
State.  New  York  Libraries,  Jan.,  1910,  2  :  57-61.  Sugges- 
tions to  remedy  the  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  public 
library  and  the  school  libraries. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  531 

Olsen,  J.  W.— "The  School  and  the  Library."  Proceedings, 
N.  E.  A.,  1907,  117. 

Outline  of  a  scheme  for  co-operation  between  the  high  schools  and 
public  library  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Library  Journal,  34  : 146. 

Parlin,  C.  C. — "Successful  High  School  Library  at  Wausau,  Wis." 
School  Review,  1907,  15  :  251-54. 

Sharp,  K.  L. — "Libraries  in  Secondary  Schools."  Library  Journal, 
1895,  20  :  c.  5-11.  See  especially  pages  9-11.  Contains  also 
a  tabulated  statement  as  to  library  conditions  in  high  schools 
in  different  States. 

Stearns,  Lutie  E.— "The  Problem  of  the  Girl."  Library  Journal, 
1906,  31  :  c.  103.  Contains  suggestions  for  interesting  girls 
in  good  literature  and  makes  a  plea  for  intermediate  de- 
partments in  libraries. 

"The  Library  in  the  School"  (editorial),  Dial,  Feb.  i,  1906,  40  :  73. 
One  of  the  best  articles  arguing  for  the  necessity  of  a  library 
in  the  high  school  as  a  working  laboratory  for  the  work  of 
the  entire  school,  but  particularly  for  the  English  and  history 
departments. 

Thurber,  Samuel. — "Voluntary  Reading  of  High  School  Students." 
School  Review,  1905,  13  :  168-79.  The  prejudices  of  Eng- 
lish teachers,  the  simple  and  crude  quality  of  pupils'  read- 
ing, above  all,  the  literature  studied  in  class:  these  form 
the  chasm  between  voluntary  reading  and  classical  high 
school  English — a  chasm  that  cannot  be  bridged  till  teachers 
of  English  take  an  interest  in  the  pupils'  reading  instead  of 
calling  it  "trash"  and  when  the  literature  is  not  composed  of 
books  totally  unsuited  to  the  tastes  of  normal  boys  and  girls. 
The  ideal  training  for  a  teacher  of  English  is  to  spend  some 
time  as  an  assistant  in  the  children's  department  of  a  large 
public  library. 

Ward,  Gilbert  O.— "The  High  School  Library."  Paper  read  before 
Library  Section,  New  York  State  Teachers'  Association, 
Rochester,  Dec.,  1910. 

Wright,  R.  H.— "How  to  Make  the  Library  Useful  to  High  School 
Students."  Public  Libraries,  10  :  460-62.  Also  in  Proceed- 
ings, N.  E.  A.,  1905.  An  excellent  article  on  the  use  of  the 
library  as  a  necessary  department  in  the  high  school. 


APPENDIX 

ARTICULATION    OF    HIGH    SCHOOL    AND    COLLEGE 

REPORT  ADOPTED   BY  THE   SECONDARY  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  JULY  n,  1911 

To  THE  SECONDARY  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATION 
ASSOCIATION. 

Your  Committee  upon  the  Articulation  of  High  School  and  College 
herewith  submits  the  following  report: 

At  the  meeting  of  this  department  in  Boston,  July  6,  1910,  reso- 
lutions were  introduced  requesting  colleges  to  discontinue  the  en- 
trance requirement  of  two  foreign  languages  and  to  recognize  as 
electives  all  subjects  well  taught  in  the  high  school.  These  resolu- 
tions furthermore  stated  that  the  public  high  schools  will  be  greatly 
hampered  in  their  attempts  to  serve  the  best  interests  of  boys  and 
girls  until  such  modification  is  made  by  the  colleges.  These  resolu- 
tions were  adopted  with  only  one  dissenting  vote.  In  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  these  resolutions,  your  committee  of  nine  was  ap- 
pointed to  prepare  a  rational  statement  of  the  work  that  the  high 
school  should  do.  To  carry  out  this  purpose,  the  committee  submits: 

A.  Some  preliminary  considerations  on  the  field  and  function  of 

education  in  the  high  school, 

B.  A  working  definition  of  a  well-planned  high  school  course,  and 

C.  Reasons  for  the  adoption  of  this  definition  as  the  basis  of 

college  admission. 

A.    SOME  PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE 

FIELD  AND  FUNCTION  OF  EDUCATION  IN 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

i.  Dr.  Henry  S.  Pritchett,  in  his  Annual  Report  as  President  of 
the  Carnegie  Foundation,  finds  that  American  education,  from  ele- 
mentary school  to  college,  is  suffering  from  the  attempt  to  teach  too 
many  subjects  to  the  same  student  at  the  same  time.  He  believes 

533 


534  APPENDIX 

that  students  taking  the  newer  subjects  should  not  be  required  to 
carry  all  the  older  subjects.  He  states  emphatically  that  this  is  no 
argument  against  the  enriched  curriculum  of  the  high  school;  but 
that,  on  the  contrary,  the  high  school  must  go  on  still  further  enrich- 
ing its  curriculum,  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  college  to  adjust  itself 
to  the  high  school  thus  broadened. 

2.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  tax-supported  high  school  to  give  every 
student  instruction  carefully  designed  to  return  to  society  intelligent, 
able-bodied,  and  progressive  citizens.     To  this  end  certain  work 
should  be  included  in  the  course  of  every  student  whether  or  not  he 
contemplates  entering  a  higher  institution.     The  responsibility  of 
the  high  school  in  this  matter  cannot  be  delegated  to  the  college 
because  there  is  no  guarantee  that  the  particular  student  will  actu- 
ally go  to  college. 

3.  It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  in  a  democratic  society  the 
high  school  has  a  distinct  function.     The  high  school  period  is  the 
testing  time,  the  time  for  trying  out  different  powers,  the  time  for 
forming  life  purposes.     Consequently,   the  opportunity  should  be 
provided  for  the  student  to  test  his  capacity  in  a  fairly  large  number 
of  relatively  diverse  kinds  of  work. 

In  the  high  school  the  boy  or  girl  may  very  properly  make  a  start 
along  the  line  of  his  chosen  vocation,  but  a  final  choice  should  not 
be  forced  upon  him  at  the  beginning  of  that  career.  If  he  makes  a 
provisional  choice  early  in  the  course,  there  should  be  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  readjustment  later  in  the  high  school.  For  this  reason  the 
requirement  of  four  years  of  work  in  any  particular  subject,  as  a 
condition  of  admission  to  a  higher  institution,  unless  that  subject  be 
one  that  may  properly  be  required  of  all  high  school  students,  is 
illogical  and  should,  in  the  judgment  of  this  committee,  be  imme- 
diately discontinued. 

4.  Not  only  is  it  the  duty  of  the  high  school  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  good  citizenship  and  to  help  in  the  wise  choice  of  a  vocation, 
but  it  is  equally  important  that  the  high  school  should  make  specific 
contribution  to  the  efficiency  of  the  individual  along  various  broad 
lines.     In  our  industrial  democracy  the  development  of  individual 
aptitudes  and  unique  gifts  is  quite  as  important  as  the  development 
of  the  common  elements  of  culture.     Moreover,  hard  work  is  to  be 
secured  not  by  insistence  upon  uniformity  of  tastes  and  interests,  but 
by  the  encouragement  of  special  effort  along  lines  that  appeal  to  the 


APPENDIX  535 

individual.  Our  education  would  gain  in  power  and  in  virility  if  we 
made  more  of  the  dominant  interest  that  each  boy  and  girl  has  at 
the  time.  It  would  seem  that  some  have  come  to  believe  the  oft- 
repeated  statement  that  the  liberal  should  precede  the  vocational; 
but  an  organic  conception  of  education  demands  the  early  introduc- 
tion of  training  for  individual  usefulness,  thereby  blending  the  lib- 
eral and  the  vocational;  for  only  then  does  the  liberal  receive  its 
social  significance  and  importance.  In  other  words,  the  boy  who 
pursues  both  the  liberal  and  the  vocational  sees  the  relation  of  his 
own  work  to  the  work  of  others  and  to  the  welfare  of  society;  whereas 
the  liberal  without  the  vocational  leaves  him  a  mere  spectator  in  the 
theatre  of  life  and  the  boxes  in  this  theatre  are  already  overcrowded. 

5.  Mechanic  arts,  agriculture,  or  household  science  should  be  rec- 
ognized as  rational  elements  in  the  education  of  all  boys  and  girls, 
and  especially  of  those  who  have  not  as  yet  chosen  their  vocation. 
Under  the  authority  of  the  traditional  conception  of  the  best  prep- 
aration for  a  higher  institution,  many  of  our  public  high  schools  are 
to-day  responsible  for  leading  tens  of  thousands  of  boys  and  girls 
away  from  the  pursuits  for  which  they  are  adapted  and  in  which 
they  are  needed,  to  other  pursuits  for  which  they  are  not  adapted 
and  in  which  they  are  not  needed.  By  means  of  exclusively  book- 
ish curricula  false  ideals  of  culture  are  developed.  A  chasm  is 
created  between  the  producers  of  material  wealth  and  the  distribu- 
tors ,and  consumers  thereof. 

The  high  school  should  in  a  real  sense  reflect  the  major  industries 
of  the  community  which  supports  it.  The  high  school,  as  the  local 
educational  institution,  should  reveal  to  boys  and  girls  the  higher 
possibilities  for  more  efficient  service  along  the  lines  in  which  their 
own  community  is  industrially  organized. 

Our  traditional  ideals  of  preparation  for  higher  institutions  are 
particularly  incongruous  with  the  actual  needs  and  future  responsi- 
bilities of  girls.  It  would  seem  that  such  high  school  work  as  is 
carefully  designed  to  develop  capacity  for  and  interest  in  the  proper 
management  and  conduct  of  a  home  should  be  regarded  as  of  im- 
portance at  least  equal  to  that  of  any  other  work.  We  do  not  under- 
stand how  society  can  properly  continue  to  sanction  for  girls  high 
school  curricula  that  disregard  this  fundamental  need,  even  though 
such  curricula  are  planned  in  response  to  the  demand  made  by  some 
of  the  colleges  for  women. 


536  APPENDIX 

B.    A  WORKING  DEFINITION  OF  A  WELL-PLANNED 
HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  considerations  on  the  field  and  function 
of  the  high  school,  and  to  secure  courses  that  shall  be  sound  as  in- 
tegral parts  of  the  larger  educational  process,  your  committee  recom- 
mends the  adoption  of  the  following  definition  of  a  well-planned 
high  school  course: 

I.   THE  QUANTITATIVE  REQUIREMENT  SHOULD  BE  FIFTEEN  UNITS. 

"A  unit  represents  a  year's  study  in  any  subject  in  a  secondary 
school,  constituting  approximately  a  quarter  of  a  full  year's  work." 
This  definition  "assumes  that  the  length  of  the  school  year  is  from 
thirty-six  to  forty  weeks,  that  a  period  is  from  forty  to  sixty  min- 
utes in  length,  and  that  the  study  is  pursued  for  four  or  five  periods 
per  week."  It  further  assumes  that  two  hours  of  manual  training 
or  laboratory  work  is  equivalent  to  one  hour  of  class  room  work. 

We  believe  that  fifteen  units  is  a  better  requirement  than  sixteen 
units,  because: 

(1)  Quantity  should  be  subordinated  to  quality. 

(2)  Overstrain  should  be  eliminated  from  the  atmosphere  of  the 
school. 

(3)  There  should  be  one  unit  leeway,  inasmuch  as  failure  in  one 
unit  in  one  year  should  neither  cost  the  student  an  extra  year  nor 
tempt  the  principal  to  permit  such  student  to  try  to  carry  an  extra 
unit  the  succeeding  year. 

(4)  Students  of  exceptional  ability  should  be  permitted  to  earn 
five  units  per  year,  thereby  shortening  the  high  school  period  by 
one  year. 

(5)  Students  poor  in  ability  should  be  required  to  spend  five 
years  upon  the  course,  attempting  and  performing  three  units  each 
year,  thereby  diminishing  failures  and  reducing  excessive  per  capita 
cost  of  instruction. 

Where  fifteen  units  is  adopted  as  the  required  number,  it  would 
seem  reasonable  that  physical  training  and  chorus  singing  should 
not  be  counted  toward  the  fifteen  units. 

We  further  recommend  that  the  practice  of  admitting  students  to 
college  weighed  down  with  conditions  be  disapproved  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  injurious  to  the  student,  to  the  high  school  from  which  he 
comes,  and  to  the  college  to  which  he  goes. 


APPENDIX  537 

a.  EVERY  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  SHOULD  INCLUDE  AT  LEAST 

THREE  UNITS  OF  ENGLISH,  ONE  UNIT  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  (INCLUD- 
ING HISTORY),  AND  ONE  UNIT  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

(1)  English. — There  is  at  the  present  time  almost  unanimous 
agreement  among  high  school  and  college  authorities  that  three  or 
four  units  of  English  should  be  required  of  all.     But  the  high  school 
should  be  granted  freedom  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  real  needs  of 
its  boys  and  girls.     A  course  that  is  good  in  one  high  school  may 
not  be  suited  to  the  needs  of  another  high  school.    Uniformity  in 
this  subject  is  utterly  disastrous. 

(2)  Social  Science  (including  history). — High  school  courses  in 
history  should  always  be  taught  so  as  to  function  in  a  better  under- 
standing of  modern  institutions,  current  events,  and  present  move- 
ments. 

Courses  in  economics  should  be  encouraged.  Economic  discussions 
are  paramount  and  ignorance  of  economic  principles  is  appalling. 

Every  high  school  student  should  be  given  a  practical  knowledge 
of  affairs  in  his  own  community,  political,  industrial,  and  philan- 
thropic; of  the  basic  principles  of  State  and  national  politics;  and 
of  movements  for  social  reform  and  international  peace. 

Any  high  school  course  that  secures  part  or  all  of  the  above  re- 
sults should  be  given  full  recognition. 

(3)  Natural  Science. — Where  a  unit  of  introductory  science  is 
taught,  it  should  be  recognized  as  fulfilling  the  minimum  requirement 
in  natural  science. 

In  some  schools  an  introductory  course  has  been  worked  out 
based  upon  physics,  with  a  minimum  of  principle  and  a  maximum 
of  application,  as  most  advantageously  meeting  the  needs  of  the 
pupils.  In  such  a  course  there  should  be  strict  insistence  upon  ac- 
curacy and  neatness  in  the  presentation  of  note-books  and  laboratory 
exercises.  Opportunity  should  be  given  for  individual  pupils  to 
work  along  special  lines,  and  to  make  contributions  out  of  their 
studies  to  the  work  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 

In  other  schools  introductory  science  is  based  largely  upon  biology. 
General  biological  material  is  used  to  explain  human  functions. 
Personal  hygiene,  including  sex  hygiene,  is  taught.  Special  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  problems  of  ventilation,  sanitation,  and  the  elimina- 
tion of  preventable  diseases.  Effort  is  made  to  secure  intelligent 
co-operation  with  health  authorities  and  to  form  public  opinion  re- 


538  APPENDIX 

garding  higher  standards  of  health.  A  certain  amount  of  physics 
and  chemistry  is  also  introduced  in  this  course. 

Either  of  these  introductory  courses  would  be  placed  intention- 
ally in  the  first  or  second  year  of  the  high  school. 

(4)  Physical  Training. — Systematic  physical  training,  consisting 
of  exercises  and  team  games,  should  be  required  of  all  students;  but 
this  work  should  not  be  regarded  as  counting  toward  the  fifteen 
required  units. 

3.  EVERY  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  SHOULD  INCLUDE  THE  COMPLE- 
TION OF  TWO  MAJORS  OF  THREE  UNITS  EACH  AND  ONE  MINOR  OF 
TWO  UNITS,  AND  ONE  OF  THE  MAJORS  SHOULD  BE  ENGLISH. 

Irrespective  of  the  possibility  that  the  student  may  go  to  a  higher 
institution,  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  do  in  the  high  school  a  certain 
amount  of  work  of  an  advanced  character.  This  provision  also 
makes  it  possible  for  a  part  of  the  work  in  college  to  be  a  continua- 
tion of  work  done  in  the  high  school,  thereby  preserving  continuity 
in  the  educational  process. 

We  recommend  that  the  following  be  recognized  as  majors: 
(a)  3  units  of  English.     (Required  of  all.) 
(6)  3  units  of  one  foreign  language.     (Latin,  German,  French,  or 

Spanish.) 

(c)  3  units  of  mathematics.  (To  include  elementary  algebra  and 
plane  geometry,  and  selections  from  plane  trigonometry, 
solid  geometry,  intermediate  algebra,  and  advanced  al- 
gebra.) 

(<f)  3  units  of  social  science.  (To  include  selections  from  history, 
civics,  economics,  municipal  affairs,  and  history  of  in- 
dustry or  commerce.) 

(«)  3  units  of  natural  science.  (To  include  selections  from  an  in- 
troductory science  course,  physics,  chemistry,  astronomy, 
agriculture,  physiography,  elementary  biology,  advanced 
physiology,  botany,  and  zoology.) 

4.  THE   REQUIREMENT   IN   MATHEMATICS   AND    IN   FOREIGN   LAN- 
GUAGES   SHOULD    NOT   EXCEED   TWO    UNITS    OF    MATHEMATICS    AND 
TWO  UNITS  OF  ONE  LANGUAGE  OTHER  THAN  ENGLISH. 

For  admission  to  engineering  courses,  the  requirement  of  a  major 
in  mathematics  appears  reasonable. 


APPENDIX  539 

For  admission  to  a  distinctively  literary  or  classical  course,  the 
requirement  of  a  major  in  one  foreign  language  appears  reasonable. 

For  other  students  a  requirement  of  more  than  two  units  of  math- 
ematics and  two  units  of  one  language,  when  not  in  accord  with  the 
dominant  interests  and  aptitudes  of  the  student,  appears  excessive. 

5.  OF  THE  TOTAL  FIFTEEN  UNITS,  NOT  LESS  THAN  ELEVEN  UNITS 
SHOULD  CONSIST  OF  ENGLISH,  FOREIGN  LANGUAGE,  MATHEMATICS, 
SOCIAL  SCIENCE  (INCLUDING  HISTORY),  NATURAL  SCIENCE,  OR 
OTHER  WORK  CONDUCTED  BY  RECITATIONS  AND  HOME  STUDY. 

THE  OTHER  FOUR  UNITS  SHOULD  BE  LEFT  AS  A  MARGIN  TO  BE 
USED  FOR  ADDITIONAL  ACADEMIC  WORK  OR  FOR  MECHANIC  ARTS, 
HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE,  COMMERCIAL  WORK,  AND  ANY  OTHER  KIND 
OF  WORK  THAT  THE  BEST  INTERESTS  OF  THE  STUDENT  APPEAR 
TO  REQUIRE. 

No  limitations  should  be  imposed  upon  the  use  of  the  margin 
except  that  the  instruction  should  be  given  by  competent  teachers 
with  suitable  equipment  in  classes  not  too  large,  and  that  the  stu- 
dent's work  should  be  of  a  satisfactory  grade. 

The  recommendation  that  the  subjects  from  which  the  margin 
may  be  made  up  should  be  left  entirely  unspecified  appears  to  be 
vital  to  the  progressive  development  of  secondary  education.  As 
long  as  formal  recognition  must  be  sought  for  each  new  subject,  so 
long  will  the  high  school  be  subservient  and  not  fully  progressive. 
It  ought  to  be  possible  for  any  strong  high  school  at  any  time  to 
introduce  into  its  curriculum  a  subject  that  either  meets  the  pecul- 
iar needs  of  the  community  or  that  appears  to  be  the  most  appro- 
priate vehicle  for  teachers  of  pronounced  individuality. 

This  margin  of  four  units  is  not  excessive.  It  amounts  to  an  aver- 
age of  only  one  unit  a  year.  A  course  containing  eleven  units  of 
academic  or  prepared  work  requires  the  student  to  carry,  practically 
throughout  the  course,  three  of  these  subjects  at  a  time.  In  gen- 
eral, this  involves  the  preparation  of  three  lessons  a  day  outside  of 
the  class  room.  A  daily  assignment  of  more  than  three  lessons,  to- 
gether with  manual  training  or  vocational  work  in  school  hours, is 
not  conducive  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence.  In  many  of  our 
high  schools,  girls,  especially,  are  subjected  to  a  scholastic  routine 
not  designed  to  develop  a  strong  race,  either  physically  or  mentally. 
(Note. — Placing  the  number  of  required  units  of  academic  or  pre- 


540  APPENDIX 

pared  work  at  eleven  instead  of  twelve  allows  a  leeway  of  one  unit 
in  case  of  a  failure  in  the  academic  work.  In  case  of  no  failure  by 
taking  four  units  each  year  the  student  may  accomplish  either  an 
extra  academic  unit  or  an  extra  vocational  unit.) 


The  provisions  of  the  foregoing  definition  may  be  summarized  as 
follows: 

Nine  specified  units. 
3  units  of  English. 
2  units  of  one  foreign  language. 
2  units  of  mathematics, 
i  unit  of  social  science  including  history, 
i  unit  of  natural  science. 
Two  additional  academic  units. 

One  or  both  of  these  units  must  be  advanced  work  to  meet 

the  requirement  of  a  second  major  of  three  units. 
Four  units  left  as  a  margin  for  whatever  work  best  meets  the 
needs  of  the  individual. 

C.    REASONS  FOR  THE  ADOPTION  OF  THIS  DEFINITION 
AS  THE  BASIS  OF  COLLEGE  ADMISSION 

College  admission  should  be  based  solely  upon  the  completion  of 
a  well-planned  high  school  course.  The  committee  submits  the  fol- 
lowing argument  in  defense  of  this  proposition: 

First:  On  the  one  hand,  many  students  do  not  go  to  college  be- 
cause they  took  those  courses  which  were  dictated  by  their  aptitudes 
and  needs  instead  of  courses  prescribed  by  the  colleges. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  students  do  not  take  the  courses  which 
they  need  because  they  think  they  may  go  to  college. 

A  committee  of  the  Boston  Head  Masters'  Association,  in  a  report 
approved  by  that  association  last  fall,  stated  the  difficulty  as  follows: 
"It  frequently  happens  that  a  pupil  in  the  public  high  school  does 
not  discover  that  he  is  likely  to  go  to  college  until  one,  two,  or  three 
years  of  the  high  school  course  have  been  completed.  As  matters 
stand  now,  many  of  the  courses  in  which  he  has  received  instruction 
and  in  which  he  may  have  done  excellent  work  are  entirely  useless 
to  him  in  so  far  as  he  may  apply  them  to  the  purposes  of  college  admis- 
sion. The  committee  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  is  decidedly  wrong." 


APPENDIX  541 

The  idea  that  the  student  should,  early  in  his  high  school  course, 
decide  whether  he  is  going  to  college  ignores  one  of  the  chief  func- 
tions of  the  high  school;  namely,  that  of  inspiring  capable  students 
with  the  desire  for  further  education.  It  is  coming  to  be  clearly  rec- 
ognized that  the  chief  characteristic  of  education  in  a  democracy,  as 
contrasted  with  that  in  a  society  dominated  by  class  distinction,  is 
the  principle  of  the  "open  door."  This  principle  of  the  "open  door" 
is  part  of  the  great  idea  of  the  conservation  of  human  gifts.  It  de- 
mands that  personal  worth  should  be  recognized  wherever  found. 
The  college  is  one  of  the  many  doors  that  should  be  kept  open. 
The  colleges  themselves  bear  tribute  to  this  principle  in  the  innu- 
merable scholarships  that  they  offer  to  boys  and  girls  in  humble  cir- 
cumstances. In  fact,  it  has  long  been  recognized  in  this  country 
that  one  boy  who  seeks  a  college  education  because  of  a  strong 
inner  purpose  in  the  face  of  obstacles  is  worth  to  the  college  and  to 
society  a  dozen  boys  who  go  to  college  merely  because  it  is  regarded 
as  the  proper  thing  to  do. 

Second:  The  attempt  that  is  often  made  to  supplement  the  work 
now  required  by  the  colleges  with  such  additional  work  as  is  re- 
quired by  the  community  and  by  a  more  adequate  understanding  of 
the  needs  of  real  boys  and  girls,  is  highly  unsatisfactory.  May  7, 
1910,  the  High  School  Teachers  Association  of  New  York  City 
issued  a  statement  in  which  they  affirmed: 

"We  believe  that  the  interests  of  the  forty  thousand  boys  and  girls 
who  annually  attend  the  nineteen  high  schools  of  this  city  cannot  be 
wisely  and  fully  served  under  present  college  entrance  requirements. 
Our  experience  seems  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  wide  discrepancy 
between  'preparation  for  life'  and  'preparation  for  college'  as  de- 
fined by  college  entrance  requirements. 

"The  attempt  to  prepare  the  student  for  college  under  the  pres- 
ent requirements  and  at  the  same  time  to  teach  him  such  other  sub- 
jects as  are  needed  for  life  is  unsatisfactory.  Under  these  condi- 
tions the  student  often  has  too  much  to  do.  The  quality  of  all  his 
work  is  likely  to  suffer.  The  additional  subjects  are  slighted  be- 
cause they  do  not  count  for  admission  to  college.  In  such  a  course 
it  is  impossible  for  the  student  to  give  these  subjects  as  much  time 
and  energy  as  social  conditions  demand." 

Third:  Even  by  faithfully  following  the  usual  college  prescription, 
the  best  preparation  for  college  is  not  secured.  Abraham  Flexner, 


542  APPENDIX 

in  his  book  "The  American  College,"  shows  how  the  college  is 
standing  in  its  own  way.  He  says  that  "The  motive  on  which  the 
college  vainly  relies,  self-realization,  has  got  to  be  rendered  operative 
at  the  earlier  stage."  "As  a  matter  of  fact,"  he  adds,  "the  second- 
ary period  is  far  more  favorable  than  the  college  to  free  exploration 
of  the  boy."  The  restrictive  preparatory  courses  prescribed  by  the 
colleges  do  not  afford  the  kind  of  experience  needed  in  the  high 
school. 

Fourth:  In  the  attempt  to  prepare  for  the  widely  varying  require- 
ments of  different  colleges  the  energies  of  the  school  are  dissipated. 
The  energy  that  should  be  devoted  to  meeting  actual  individual 
needs  of  students  is  expended  upon  the  study  of  college  catalogs. 
An  institution  that  should  be  encouraged  to  develop  internally  is 
made  subordinate  and  subservient.  As  an  illustration  of  the  confu- 
sion in  the  requirements  of  different  colleges,  we  find  that  one  col- 
lege requires  one  foreign  language,  counts  work  in  a  second,  and 
gives  no  credit  for  a  third;  another  college  requires  two  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  requires  one  unit  in  a  third,  unless  music  or  physics  is 
presented  as  a  substitute;  and  a  third  college  absolutely  requires 
three  foreign  languages. 

Fifth:  But  by  far  the  most  serious  objection  to  the  present  condi- 
tion is,  as  Commissioner  Snedden  says,  to  be  found  in  the  restrictive 
effect  upon  true  high  school  development.  The  high  school  to-day 
is  the  arena  in  which  our  greatest  educational  problems  should  be 
worked  out.  High  school  attendance  in  this  country  has  increased 
almost  fourfold  within  the  last  twenty  years.  If  the  college  will 
recognize  the  true  function  of  the  high  school  this  marvellous  growth 
will  continue  unabated  and  the  American  high  school  will  become 
an  institution  unparalleled  as  a  factor  for  democratic  living.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  any  nation  ever  before  possessed  such  an  oppor- 
tunity. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  REPORT 

The  committee  submits  the  following  additional  statement  and 
recommendation : 

The  universal  education  to  which  our  institutions  are  now  com- 
mitted is  radically  different  from  the  education  for  a  literary  class  to 
which  we  were  formerly  devoted.  So  long  as  our  education  was  de- 


APPENDIX  543 

signed  for  the  few  it  was  possible  to  require  candidates  for  that  edu- 
cation to  conform  to  a  certain  definite  intellectual  type,  and  to  reject 
all  other  candidates.  That  type  was  defined  in  terms  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Mathematics — substitutes  not  allowed.  This  definition 
actually  debarred  many  individuals  who  did  not  entirely  conform  to 
the  type  but  who  possessed  other  strong  qualities  that  would  have 
made  them  valuable  members  of  the  learned  professions.  Never- 
theless, the  injustice  of  this  procedure  aroused  no  strong  opposition 
because  there  were  a  sufficient  number  of  other  candidates  conform- 
ing to  the  type  to  fill  the  very  limited  number  of  positions  in  the  then 
existing  professions. 

As  soon  as  the  advantages  of  a  higher  education  made  a  strong 
appeal  to  a  somewhat  larger  group  of  men  and  women,  the  rigor  of 
the  former  requirement  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Mathematics  was  re- 
laxed by  reducing  the  amounts  required  and  by  allowing  a  substitu- 
tion of  modern  language  for  part  or  all  of  the  classical  languages. 
This  process  was  characterized  by  its  opponents  as  "letting  down  the 
bars."  Such  it  was,  not  so  much  in  the  sense  that  it  made  education 
easier,  as  in  the  sense  that  it  permitted  education  to  make  its  appeal 
to  a  much  larger  group  of  men  and  women. 

We  believe  that  the  time  has  arrived  when  it  is  the  duty  of  those 
engaged  in  education  to  consider  the  importance  of  making  our  educa- 
tion appeal  to  still  other  students.  To-day  it  is  impossible  in  many 
communities  for  a  boy  or  a  girl  to  obtain  even  a  high  school  educa- 
tion unless  he  or  she  can  do  passing  work  in  both  mathematics  and  a 
foreign  language.  Schoolmen  in  general  are  familiar  with  students, 
usually  girls,  who  do  good  work  in  languages,  history,  and  certain 
sciences,  but  who  cannot  master  high  school  or  college  mathematics. 
There  are  other  students,  mostly  boys,  who  do  good  work  in  mathe- 
matics, science  and  history,  but  who  have  exceptional  difficulty  with 
foreign  languages.  A  student  of  the  latter  type  would  find  ample 
field  for  the  exercise  of  all  his  linguistic  ability  in  a  reasonable  mas- 
tery of  the  English  language. 

In  the  East  we  find  a  tendency  to  attach  particular  importance  to 
the  study  of  foreign  languages,  and  in  the  West  we  find  a  tendency 
to  emphasize  mathematics.  But  native  abilities  are  not  geographi- 
cal quantities. 

We  believe  that  insistence  upon  the  study  of  mathematics  and  for- 
eign language  as  a  sine  qua  non  of  an  education  is  based  largely  upon 


544 


APPENDIX 


the  belief  that  both  are  indispensable  for  intellectual  discipline.  But 
we  know  that  many  of  our  greatest  men  have  been  deficient  in  one 
or  the  other  of  these  accomplishments.  They  evidently  secured 
their  intellectual  power  by  other  processes.  The  disciplinary  possi- 
bilities of  other  subjects  are  not  yet  fully  recognized. 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  statement,  we  recommend  that  Section  4 
of  the  definition  of  a  well-planned  high  school  course,  be  supple- 
mented by  the  following  additional  statement: 

4  (a).  IN  PLACE  or  EITHER  TWO  UNITS  OF  MATHEMATICS  OR  TWO 

UNITS  OF  A  FOREIGN  LANGUAGE,  THE  SUBSTITUTION  UNDER  PROPER 
SUPERVISION  SHOULD  BE  ALLOWED  OF  TWO  UNITS  CONSISTING  OF 
A  SECOND  UNIT  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  (INCLUDING  HISTORY)  AND 
A  SECOND  UNIT  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE. 

In  other  words,  there  should  be  allowed  under  proper  supervision 
the  selection  of  four  units  from  the  following: 

(1)  Two  units  of  one  foreign  language. 

(2)  Two  units  of  mathematics. 

(3)  Two  units  consisting  of  a  second  unit  of  social  science  and  a 
second  unit  of  natural  science. 

According  to  this  provision  it  would  be  possible  under  proper  su- 
pervision to  substitute  the  work  in  columns  (B)  or  (C)  for  the  work 
in  column  (A). 


(A) 

(B) 

(c) 

English  .         ...   ................... 

Foreign  Language  

2 

2 

o 

Mathematics  

2 

o 

2 

Social  Science  ...... 

I 

2 

2 

Natural  Science  ...... 

I 

2 

2 

Total  specified  

To  which  must  be  added  to  make  another 
ma  ior.  .  . 

i  or  2 

I 

I 

Total  

10  or  ii 

10 

IO 

APPENDIX  545 

Consequently  the  student  without  mathematics  must  present  three 
units  in  two  subjects  and  two  units  in  the  two  remaining  subjects, 
thereby  demonstrating  ability  in  four  lines  of  work. 

Similarly,  the  student  without  foreign  languages  must  present 
three  units  in  two  subjects  and  two  units  in  the  two  remaining 
subjects. 

To  CARRY  OUT  THIS  PLAN  WE  WOULD  URGE  THAT  AT  LEAST 
MANY  OF  THE  LARGER  COLLEGES  SHOULD  MAKE  SPECIAL  PROVI- 
SION TO  CONTINUE  THE  EDUCATION  OF  STUDENTS  OF  WHOM  IT 
HAS  BEEN  DISCOVERED  THAT  THE  REQUIREMENT  OF  MATHEMATICS 
OR  THE  REQUIREMENT  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGE  IS  AN  OBSTACLE  TO 
THE  CONTINUATION  OF  THEIR  EDUCATION. 

Respectfully  submitted, 
CLARENCE  D.  KINGSLEY,  Chairman, 

Manual  Training  High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
WILLIAM  M.  BUTLER, 

Principal,  Yeatman  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
FRANK  B.  DYER, 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
CHARLES  W.  EVANS, 

Principal,  High  School,  East  Orange,  N.  J. 
CHARLES  H.  JUDD, 

Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  111. 
ALEXIS  F.  LANGE, 

Dean  of  College  Faculties,  University  of  California,  Cal 
W.  D.  LEWIS, 

Principal,  William  Penn  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
WILLIAM  ORR, 

Deputy  State  Commissioner  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass 
WILLIAM  H.  SMILEY, 

Principal,  East  Side  High  School,  Denver,  Colo. 

Committee. 

The  chairman  herewith  appends  the  following  statement  from 
Prof.  Charles  H.  Judd,  expressing  the  opinion  that  even  greater 
latitude  should  be  allowed  to  the  high  school  and  explaining  an  im- 
portant principle  that  should  at  this  time  be  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  all  concerned  with  the  relations  of  school  and  college. 


546  APPENDIX 

MY  DEAR  MR.  CHAIRMAN: 

In  signing  the  report,  I  am  very  glad  indeed  to  express  my  sym- 
pathy with  the  general  outlines  of  the  whole  statement  which  is  here 
made  by  the  committee.  It  is  my  opinion  that  somewhat  greater 
latitude  should  be  allowed  the  high  school  in  the  organization  of  its 
courses.  To  this  end,  I  should  personally  prefer  that  the  various 
requirements  be  not  specific  in  terms  of  the  subjects.  The  only 
specification  which  I  find  it  possible  to  favor  is  that  which  requires 
a  certain  amount  of  coherent  work  in  the  high  school.  To  this  end, 
I  believe  that  it  would  be  wiser  to  require  two  majors  of  three  units 
and  one  minor  of  two  units.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the  plan  re- 
cently adopted  by  the  University  of  Chicago. 

One  other  principle  should,  I  believe,  be  incorporated  in  any 
report  which  deals  with  the  relations  of  high  schools  and  colleges. 
These  two  institutions  should  follow  up  the  work  of  high  school 
students  much  more  completely  than  is  now  done.  A  student  who 
comes  from  a  high  school  into  a  college,  should  have  his  relative 
rank  in  the  high  school  class  reported  to  the  college.  The  work  he 
is  carrying  on  in  the  college  should  be  carefully  observed,  and  re- 
ports should  be  sent  back  to  the  high  school,  stating  the  rank  of  the 
student  in  college.  Both  institutions  would  profit  by  this  exchange 
of  information.  The  college  would  learn  by  such  a  comparative  ' 
study  of  the  student's  work  whether  or  not  its  courses  are  articulat- 
ing directly  with  those  of  the  high  school.  The  high  school  would 
learn  whether  or  not  it  is  articulating  with  the  college.  It  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  high  school  should  in  every  case  articu- 
late with  the  college  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  the  high  standing  of 
its  students  in  college. 

Without  attempting  to  pass  on  that  question,  however,  the  informa- 
tion that  would  be  gained  by  the  study  of  relative  marks  would  be  very 
valuable  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  to  the  consciousness  of  both  in- 
stitutions the  character  of  the  work  which  the  students  are  able  to  do. 

I  should  appreciate  the  opportunity  of  adding  this  comment  to 
the  report  if  you  do  not  feel  that  it  would  encumber  the  committee's 
statement.  In  any  case,  I  am  prepared  to  sign  the  general  report. 
These  comments  are  merely  added  in  the  hope  that  the  principles 
outlined  in  this  report  may  be  extended  somewhat  further  than  the 
committee  has  found  it  expedient  to  carry  them. 

CHARLES  H.  JUDD. 


INDEX 


ABSTRACTION  IN  ENGLISH,  227. 

Academic  departments,  72. 

Academies,  445. 

Academy,  early  American,  55,  62. 

Activities,  appreciative,  outdoor,  pro- 
ductive, 436,  440. 

Adenoids,  353. 

Administration  of  high  school,  Introd., 
chaps.  I,  IV,  and  V. 

Administrative  control  of  instruction, 
108,  113. 

Adolescence,  characteristics  of,  69, 
236;  pedagogical  implications  re- 
specting, 70. 

Adolescents,  value  of  psychology  to, 
452,  453- 

/Esthetic  training,  as  aim  of  certain 
studies,  319,  328. 

/Esthetics,  credit  for,  319,  320;  in  pub- 
lic speaking,  247;  prejudice  against 
study  of,  321. 

Agricultural  colleges,  386;  training 
courses  for  teachers,  394. 

Agricultural  high  school,  422. 

Agriculture,  206;  aims  in  high  school, 
382;  college  entrance  credit,  387; 
definition  of,  381;  number  of  high 
sqhools  teaching,  385-387;  relation 
to  grade  work,  385. 

Aims,  of  agriculture,  382;  of  Latin, 
258. 

Alabama,  386. 

Alcohol,  relation  to  venereal  disease, 
369,  379- 

Algebra,  131,  132,  137-140,  143,  144. 

Algorism,  129. 

Al-Khowarizmi,  129,  130. 

Allowances,  431,  437. 

Altruism,  motive  in  English,  235. 

American  high  school,  Introd.,  v. 

Analysis,  structural,  234,  236. 

Angell,  J.  R.,  444  (foot-note). 

Apparatus,  physics,  168,  175. 

Applied  science  in  secondary  schools, 
214,  215. 

Appreciation  courses,  325,  326,  327; 
credit  for,  327,  329;  plan  for,  327; 
standards  of.  326;  value  of,  326. 


Aristotle,  200. 

Arithmetic,  120-133,  137,  138,  140. 

Arkansas,  386. 

Art,  appreciation  of,  304,  315;  educa- 
tional function  of,  305 ;  educational 
history  of,  306;  educational  impor- 
tance of,  304;  elementary  school 
preparation  in,  313;  industrial  values 
of,  306;  preparation  of  teachers  in, 
3i5- 

Art  and  morals,  229,  232. 

Assignments  in  English,  235,  237. 

Athletics  and  the  sex  problem,  379. 

Audience  in  English,  234,  236. 

Authority,  208. 

Automatism,  32. 

BABBITT,  Irving,  35,  36. 

Bacteriology,  349,  358,  359. 

Bad  English,  230-235. 

Benefits  through  English,  233,  236. 

Bergen,  J.  V.,  202. 

Berzelius,  laboratory  of,  193. 

Bible,  use  of  in  the  school,  334. 

Bibliographies,  Introd.,  xii. 

Billings,  J.  S.,  348- 

Biology,  198,  352,  357,  359. 

Biology  courses,  206. 

Birge,  Edward  B.,  327. 

Bishop,  J.  Remson,  401. 

Boards  of  education  and  control  of 

instruction,  114. 
Boethius,  130. 
Boston,  354. 
Boston  High  School,  first  American 

High   School,   445    (foot-note);     of 

Commerce,  421;   of  Practical  Arts, 

422. 

Botany  rhetoric,  233. 
Boy-problem,  369. 
Briggs,  Thomas  H.,  253. 
Brooks,  Phillips,  339. 
Brown,  E.  E.,  77,  445  (foot-note). 
Brown,  M.  R.,  201. 
Budgets,  431,  432,  438. 
Bunker,  F.  T.,  103. 
Burne-Jones,  462. 
Butler,  N.  M.,  317,  320. 
547 


548 


INDEX 


CABOT,  R.  C.,  348. 

California,  386. 

Carbolic  acid,  antidote  for,  185. 

Carelessness,  209. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  400. 

Carnegie  Foundation,  5,  32. 

Castiglione,  49. 

Chancellor,  W.  E.,  125,  337. 

Character-building,  233. 

Charters,  W.  W.,  444  (foot-note). 

Chastity,  relation  to  health,  372. 

Cheating,  210. 

Chemistry,  352,  357;  course,  need  for, 
in  high  schools,  183-186;  place  to 
be  allotted  to,  195,  196;  time  to  be 
allotted  to,  195,  196;  direct  useful- 
ness of,  185;  educative  value  of, 
185,  186;  influence  of,  on  civiliza- 
tion, 184,  185;  laboratory  equip- 
ment, 192-194;  laboratory  work, 
suggestions  as  to,  194,  195;  percent 
of  students  studying,  187;  teacher, 
equipment  of,  196,  197;  teaching, 
difficulties  of,  188-190;  teaching, 
suggestions  as  to,  190-192;  text- 
books, choosing  of,  197;  what  is 
183,  184. 

Chicago  Manual  Training  School,  411. 

Chicago,  University  of,  separation  of 
psychology  from  philosophy,  443. 

Choosing  a  color  scheme,  433,  439. 

Chorus  work,  318,  319;  aesthetic  value 
of,  323;  as  social  function  of  school, 
324;  credit  for,  325;  plan  for,  324; 
practice  hours  for,  324,  325. 

Cincinnati,  University  of,  and  indus- 
trial education,  419. 

Civics,  in  connection  with  public 
speaking,  246. 

Civil  government,  teaching  of,  299, 
300. 

Clapp,  John  M.,  253. 

Class  hour  in  English,  235,  237. 

Class  teachers  and  supervisors,  124. 

Classical  literature,  48,  55,  56. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  403. 

Cleveland  Technical  High  School,  421. 

Clubs,  musical,  credit  for,  330;  value 
of,  329. 

Coe,  G.  A.,  335. 

Coeducation  and  instruction,  126. 

College  domination,  201,  208. 

College  Entrance  Board,  143;  defini- 
tion of  physics  unit,  159. 

College,  entrance  credit  for  agricult- 
ure, 387;  entrance  credit  for  music, 
339;  entrance  requirements,  m. 


College,  French,  60. 

Colleges  and  instruction,  115. 

Commercial  course,  the,  410. 

Commercial  education,  additional 
courses,  401;  aims  of,  397;  a  prac- 
tical illustration,  398;  better  pre- 
liminary preparation,  406;  growth 
of,  396;  obstacles  to,  407;  subjects 
in,  400;  success  of,  399;  undeveloped 
condition  of,  397. 

Commercial  English,  230. 

Committee  of  Five,  report  of,  293, 
294. 

Committee  of  Nine,  report  of,  400. 

Committee  of  Seven,  report  of,  292, 
293- 

Committee  of  Ten,  73,  227;  report  of, 
292. 

Committee  of  Twelve,  report  on  mod- 
ern language  teaching,  285. 

Composition,  329;  English,  228-234; 
Latin,  272. 

Concepts,  ultimate,  in  physics,  148. 

Concrete  geometry,  136,  140. 

Conduct,  434,  439. 

Conferences  on  English,  231. 

Consequences,  fear  of,  376. 

Consolidated  school,  101. 

Consultation  hour,  235. 

Consultative  committee,  88. 

Contributors,  Introd.,  vi. 

Control  of  instruction,  external,  107; 
internal,  117. 

Controversy,  formal  discipline,  36. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  337. 

Co-operation,  of  high  school  and  col- 
lege, 4,  5;  of  teachers,  235. 

Co-operative  industrial  education,  419. 

Correctness  in  English,  230-233. 

Correlation,  of  agriculture  and  science, 
391,  392;  between  subjects,  205. 

Corson,  Hiram,  on  literary  apprecia- 
tion, 247. 

Coulter,  J.  M.,  198,  202. 

Course  of  study,  high  school,  99; 
Latin,  266;  making  of,  125;  mean- 
ing of,  in. 

Courses,  in  agriculture  (one  year,  389; 
two  to  four  year,  390;  component 
parts,  390,  391);  in  English  classics, 
242;  in  English  composition,  240; 
in  modern  languages,  285. 

Courtesies  and  customs  of  the  table, 
434,  440- 

Crampton,  W.,  354,  355. 

Credits,  328. 

Criticism  in  English,  236. 


INDEX 


549 


Criticisms  of  definitions  of  the  physics 
unit,  1 68,  170. 

Crosby,  C.,  350,  351. 

Cultural  studies,  agriculture,  383,  384. 

Curriculum,  agriculture  in  the,  389, 
300;  bases  of,  25-27;  experiments 
with,  i,  9,  23;  for  six  year  high 
school,  95;  making  of,  125;  mean- 
ing of,  m;  problems,  23,  24;  pub- 
lic interest  in,  i,  2,  11,  15,  26,  27. 

DAVIDSON,  Thos.,  7,  36. 

Davis,  B.  M.,  202. 

Dawson,  J.,  204. 

Debates,  high  school,  250;  statistics 
concerning,  254. 

Definitions  of  the  physics  unit,  152, 
156,  150. 

De  Garmo,  Chas.,  22,  397. 

Democratic  spirit  in  English,  226. 

Departmental  teaching,  advantages, 
89,  oo;  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades, 
89  ff.,  loo. 

Deportment,  in  classes  studying  liter- 
ature, 248. 

Descartes,  144. 

Design,  aims,  310;  courses  in,  313; 
elementary  school  preparation  for, 
314;  industrial  demand  for,  306; 
natural  demand  for,  305. 

Development  of  the  physics  course, 
history  of,  150;  future  of,  180. 

Dewey,  John,  14,  33,  75,  76,  115,  126, 
341,  442,  4/1/1  (foot-note),  458  (foot- 
note). 

Differentiation  of  instruction,  93,  96. 

Diophantus,  130. 

Disciplinary  value,  of  agriculture,  384; 
of  Latin,  259. 

Discipline,  formal,  chap.  II. 

Disease,  venereal,  364,  368,  376,  377, 
378, 379;  crusades  against,  364, 368. 

Domestic  art,  428,  429,  437. 

Domestic  science,  428,  429,  438. 

Downing,  Dr.,  460. 

Dramatic  clubs,  238,  251. 

Draper,  A.  S.,  102. 

Drawing,  free-hand,  courses  in,  311; 
elementary  school  preparation  for, 
3 13 ;  value  in  design,  309;  in  indus- 
tries, 309;  in  pictorial  effects,  310; 
in  science,  308. 

ECONOMY,  principle  of,  in  science,  147. 
"Education  and  Life,"  214. 
Education,  meaning  of,   106;    voca- 
tional, 409. 


Educational  value  of  physiography, 
218,  219;  Professor  Davis  quoted, 
219. 

Efficiency,  social,  226,  233. 

Egypt;  129. 

Elementary  education,  aim  of,  76;  defi- 
nition of,  75. 

Elementary  school  course,  aim  of,  75, 
76;  criticisms  of,  73;  departmental 
teaching  in,  89  ff.;  early  character- 
istics of,  68;  promotion  by  subjects 
in,  92,  101;  secondary  subjects  in, 
93;  six-year  course,  73,  75,  79,  103. 

Elementary  science,  389. 

Elementary  vocational  training,  415. 

Eleutheromania,  35. 

Emissions,  physiology  of,  371. 

Emotions,  training  of,  in  public  speak- 
ing, 248. 

English,  aims  in  teaching,  226,  233; 
principle  of  method  in,  227;  pur- 
pose of  studying,  227,  237;  ideals  in 
studying,  230;  preparation  for  teach- 
ing, 239;  motives  for  studying,  235; 
scheme  of  work  in,  240;  vocational 
demands  on,  231,  239. 

English  classics,  course  in,  240-242; 
home  reading  in,  236;  methods  of 
teaching,  236;  motives  for  studying, 
236;  oral  interpretation  of,  237; 
text-books,  236;  class  hour  in,  237. 

English  composition,  oral,  235;  class 
hour  in,  235;  text-books  in,  233; 
methods  of  teaching,  235;  ideals  in, 
230;  publication  in,  234,  236,  238; 
paragraph  method  in,  233;  choice 
of  topics  for,  234,  239;  theme  read- 
ing, 235. 

English  helped  by  Latin,  260. 

English  secondary  education,  59. 

Entrance  requirements,  in,  188,  230, 
266,  329,  387. 

Equipment,  for  instruction,  120;  of 
the  physics  laboratory,  168,  172, 
175- 

Ethics  in  adolescent  education,  340, 

34i- 

Euclid,  131. 

Exhibits  and  appliances,  office,  405. 
Experiments,     in    psychology,    457; 

with  curriculum,  i,  9,  23. 
External  control  of  instruction,  107. 
Eyesight,  352. 

FAUNCE,  Pres.  William  H.  P.,  403. 
Field,  Marshall,  400. 
Findlay,  J.  J.,  20. 


550 


INDEX 


Fine  Arts,  428,  429,  439. 

Fitchburg  plan  of  industrial  education, 
419. 

Floors  and  floor  coverings,  433,  439. 

Folk  and  aesthetic  dancing,  value  of, 
319- 

Foreign  influence  of  English,  230, 
231. 

Foreign  school  systems,  68,  69,  79. 

Form  in  English,  231. 

Formal  discipline,  chap.  II. 

Fraternity,  high  school,  379. 

French,  high  school  course  in,  by  years, 
287. 

French  or  German  ?  284. 

French  secondary  education,  60. 

Froebel,  442. 

Function,  functional  point  of  view  in 
psychology,  458. 

Function  of  physiography,  215,  216. 

Function,  reproductive,  361,  370;  at- 
titude of  society  toward,  361. 

Fundamental  concepts  in  physics,  148. 

Furniture,  433,  439. 

GAILLARD,  Edwin  White,  461. 

Galileo,  167,  168. 

Geographical  laboratories,   217,   218; 

necessary  apparatus,  218. 
Geometry,  129-133, 136, 137-140, 144, 

145- 

Georgia,  386. 
Gerhard  of  Cremona,  130. 
German,   high  school  course   in,   by 

years,  286. 

German  influence  on  English,  230,  231. 
German  secondary  education,  59. 
Germ-carriers   and  venereal   disease, 

363. 

Gonorrhoea,  363,  377,  378. 
Gouin,  a  worker  in  the  psychological 

method   of  teaching  modern   lan- 
guages, 280. 
Graduate  course,  Harvard  University, 

400. 

Grammar,  English,  228. 
Grammar  method  of  teaching  modem 

languages,  278. 

Graphs  in  mathematics,  135,  136. 
Greek  mathematics,  129,  130. 
Gulick,  L.  H.,  350. 
Gymnasium,  50,  52,  58. 

HABIT,  Rowe  on,  33;  Sidis  on,  34,  35; 
William  James  on,  36,  37;  Thos. 
Davidson  on,  37;  and  the  teacher, 
40-44. 


Hadley,  William  A.,  404. 

Halliday,  E.  M.,  on  oral  English  com- 
mittee, 253. 

Hamilton,  James,  early  teacher  by  in- 
ductive method,  278. 

Hanus,  P.  H.,  76. 

Harmony,  329. 

Harvard  College,  chemistry  credited 
for  admission,  188;  requirement  in 
English,  230. 

Health,  434,  440. 

Hearing,  353. 

Heath,  H.,  202. 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  340,  444. 

Heness,  Gottlieb,  a  founder  of  the 
natural  method,  279. 

Herbart,  442. 

High  school,  aim  and  function,  76,  77; 
building,  88;  courses  of  study,  99; 
curriculum,  78;  early  character  of, 
72;  "Junior,"  86,  87,  103;  organi- 
zation of,  75;  origin  of,  63;  relation 
of,  to  college,  65;  rural,  101;  school 
days,  98;  "Senior,"  86,  87;  sex 
problem  in,  368. 

High  school  course  of  study  (pro- 
gramme of  studies);  aim,  76,  77; 
early  character  of,  72;  differentia- 
tion in,  79-81;  reorganization  of, 
80;  six-year  course  (curriculum),  73. 

High  school  course  in  German,  by 
years,  286;  courses  in  modern  lan- 
guages, results  to  be  attained,  287; 
music  teaching,  how  to  improve  it, 
320,  321. 

High  school  organization,  contem- 
porary defects  in,  71,  74;  origin  of 
the  system,  71;  six-year  high  school, 
75,  79- 

High  schools,  agricultural,  386;  free, 
63;  types  of,  65. 

Higher  institutions,  control  of  instruc- 
tion, 115. 

History,  aids  in  teaching,  298,  299; 
high  school  courses  in,  293,  294; 
methods  of  teaching,  295,  298;  prep- 
aration of  teacher  of,  301-303; 
qualifications  of  teacher  of,  301; 
recognition  of  the  values  of,  291-295 ; 
values  of  the  study  of,  288-291. 

History,  of  biology,  200;  of  the  high 
school  course  in  physics,  150;  of 
physics  development,  166. 

Home,  decline  of,  334;  location  and 
structure,  432,437, 438;  home  nurs- 
ing, 432,  433,  438;  home  study,  98. 

Home,  H.  H.,  341,  444  (foot-note). 


INDEX 


551 


Homer,  144. 

Hunt,  Mrs.  Mary  H.,  347. 
Hunter,  G.  W.,  202,  204,  351. 
Hygiene  in  the  college,  356. 

IDAHO,  386. 

Ideals  in  English,  226,  230,  233,  240. 

Illustrative  material  in  teaching  mod- 
ern languages,  281. 

Imagination  in  English,  229. 

Incentives  to  learn  English,  235,  236. 

Indianapolis,  327. 

Indianapolis  Manual  Training  High 
School,  420. 

Inductive  method  of  teaching  modern 
languages,  278. 

Industrial  courses,  81. 

Industrial  education,  g,  10. 

Instruction,  administrative  control  of, 
109,  113;  college  control  of,  115; 
external  control  of,  107;  identity 
w.  equality,  126;  inspectorial  con- 
trol of,  no,  115;  legislative  control 
of,  108,  113;  organization  and  con- 
trol of,  106;  plans  of,  112;  State 
control  of,  116;  supervisory  control 
of,  109,  115. 

Interest,  elements  of,  in  physics,  146. 

Inter-relations  of  sciences,  213. 

Introductory  and  correlative  functions 
of  physiography,  219,  220. 

Iowa,  350. 

Issues,  educational,  12,  13. 

JACOTOT,  early  teacher  of  French  by 
inductive  method,  278. 

Sames,  William,  33,  36,  43,  452. 
astrow,  Joseph,  33. 
ohn  of  ^Halifax,  129. 
ordan,  D.  S.,  202. 
udd,  C.  H.,  444  (foot-note). 
Junior  high  school,  86,  87,  103. 

KELLOGG,  V.  L.,  202. 
Kelly,  H.  A.,  202. 

Kinds  of  educational  institutions,  7-10. 
Knowledge  and  conduct,  341,  342. 
Knowledge  of  earth  science  a  neces- 
sity, 216. 

LABORATORY  WORK,  207,  210;  in  phys- 
ics, 151,  164,  168,  172;  mathemat- 
ics, 135. 

Lange,  A.  F.,  28. 

Language  study  should  begin  early, 
377,  283- 

Lamed,  J.  N.,  342. 


Latin,  205,  257;  aims  of,  258;  au- 
thors read,  269;  composition,  272; 
courses  of  study,  266;  grammar,  273; 
number  of  pupils  in,  257;  teachers, 

275- 

Latin  or  German?  284. 
Leddike,  F.,  77. 

Legislation,  agriculture,  381,  386. 
Legislative  control  of  instruction,  io&, 

113- 
Leisure  time,  the  use  of  the,  435,  436, 

440. 

Letter- writing,  231. 
Liberal  education,  46. 
Librarian,  assistance  for,  463;   duties 

of,  463. 
Library,   courses,  466;    purposes  of, 

464;  questions,  466,  467;  teaching 

the  use  of,  464,  465. 
Library  instruction,  465;    value  of, 

469. 

Liebig,  first  laboratory  for  student  in- 
struction, 187. 

Linville,  H.  R.,  202,  203,  206. 
Literary  societies,  249,  254. 
Literature,  428,  429,  440;  English  (see 

English  Classics);  oral  interpretation 

of,  247;  true  test  in  reading,  247. 
Locke,  57. 
Louisiana,  386. 
Lyc6e,  French,  60. 

MACH,  Ernst,  147,  148,  168. 

Mac  Vannel,  J.  A.,  in. 

Maine,  386. 

Mai-nutrition,  353. 

Mann,  C.  R.,  170. 

Manners,  the  significance  of,  434,  440. 

Massachusetts,  351,  353,  386. 

Massachusetts  law  regarding  voca- 
tional education,  415. 

Masturbation,  372,  378.  '• 

Mathematics,  205;  beauty,  132; 
blackboard  work,  141;  correlation, 
134,  137-140;  history  of,  128-131; 
laboratory  methods,  135;  oral  work, 
138,  139;  practical,  132,  134;  sym- 
metry, 132;  teachers,  142,  143;  use 
of,  in  the  physics  course,  169;  writ- 
ten work,  141. 

Maxwell,  W.  H.,  354. 

McAndrew,  Principal,  467. 

McDonald,  Wm.,  25. 

McKinley,  William,  403. 

McMurry,  Frank,  444  (foot-note). 

Mead,  G.  H.,  195. 

Mechanical  players,  327. 


552 


INDEX 


Mediaeval  secondary  education,  47. 

Medical  inspection,  352,  353,  354. 

Menomonie  (Wis.)  High  School,  416. 

Menstruation,  371. 

Mero,  E.  B.,  353. 

Merriam,  J.  L.,  21. 

Method  in  physiography,  a  better, 
221,  222;  basis  of  method,  222. 

Methodology  of  English,  227. 

Methods,  in  psychology,  455. 

Meumann,  E.,  43. 

Meylan,  G.  L.,  356,  358. 

Michigan,  386;  State  Library  Com- 
mission, 468. 

Minnesota,  386. 

Mississippi,  386. 

Missouri,  387. 

Model  dining-room,  434. 

Model  schools,  20. 

Modern  language  study,  beginnings  of, 
278. 

Modern  languages,  as  substitute  for 
ancient  in  American  college  require- 
ments, 279;  displace  ancient  in  cer- 
tain Prussian  schools,  279. 

Mohammedans,  129. 

Moral  culture,  need  of,  in  the  schools, 
332. 

Moral  education,  19-21;  in  connec- 
tion with  public  speaking,  246. 

Moral  element  in  education,  neglect  of, 
333- 

Moral  instruction,  methods  of,  337- 
342;  programme  of  study  in,  342- 
345- 

Moral  training,  importance  of,  in  mod- 
ern life,  332. 

Moral  value  of  physics  study,  149. 

Motives  in  English,  235. 

Mozier,  W.  F.,  253. 

Munich,  9. 

Museum  work,  206. 

Music,  428,  440;  and  literature,  237; 
the  art  of  our  times,  325;  the  most 
social  of  arts,  325. 

Music  courses,  as  generally  classified, 
317;  new  classification,  318. 

NARCOTICS  AND  STIMULANTS,  348,  349. 
National  Education  Association,  73, 

79, 143, 388  (foot-note);  committees 

of,  73,  227,  285,  292,  293,  294,  400. 
Natural  method  of  teaching  modern 

languages,  279. 
Nature  study,  relation  to  agriculture, 

382,  385. 
Nebraska,  386,  387. 


Nervous  prostration,  induced  by  dra- 
matic presentations,  252. 

New  England  Association,  231. 

New  Jersey,  386,  387. 

New  method  in  physiography,  214. 

New  York,  386;  law  regarding  voca- 
tional education,  416;  State  Edu- 
cation Department,  143;  State  of, 
psychology  in  academies,  445;  State 
Science  Teachers'  Association,  349. 

New  York  City,  352,  354. 

Nichols,  Edw.  L.,  182. 

Nichols,  Ernest  F.,  148. 

Night-dreams,  significance  of,  371. 

North  Central  Association,  definition 
of  physics  unit,  156. 

Notation,  knowledge  of,  323. 

OBER-REALSCHtTLEN,  58. 

Observation  in  English,  227,  228. 

Obstacles  to  teaching,  208. 

Ohio,  387. 

Oklahoma,  386. 

Oral  English,  235,  237;  resolutions  of 
Illinois  teachers  of  English  concern- 
ing, 253. 

Oral  interpretation  of  literature,  247. 

Oratorical  contests,  251. 

Oratorio  choruses,  effect  on  voice,  324; 
value  of,  as  experience  after  school, 
324- 

Oregon  Library  Commission,  468. 

Osborn,  Henry,  33. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  444. 

Outlining  in  English,  235. 

PALMER,  G.  H.,  337. 

Paragraph  method  in  English,  233. 

Parker,  Bertrand  DeR.,  400. 

Parker,  Colonel,  442. 

Pathology,  venereal,  376,  377. 

Patriotism,  taught  in  public  speaking, 
246. 

Pedagogical  value  of  physics,  149, 165. 

Pedagogies,  multiplicity  of,  Introd., 
vi,  vii;  specialized,  Introd.,  x,  xi. 

Pennsylvania,  386. 

"People's  College,"  96. 

Pestalozzi,  200,  442. 

Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  445. 

Phonetic  method  of  language  teaching, 
280. 

Physical  development,  incentives  to, 
in  public  speaking,  247. 

Physical  education,  present  day  inter- 
est in,  346;  revival  of  interest  in, 
353- 


INDEX 


553 


Physics,  146,  352,  357. 

Physiographic  texts,  changes  in,  216, 
217. 

Physiography,  defined,  212;  distinc- 
tion between  physical  geography 
and,  220;  explanation  of  earth 
phenomena,  212,  213;  explains  phe- 
nomena, 215;  fundamental  science, 
213;  in  curriculum,  2ig;  its  relation 
to  general  geography,  212;  justifica- 
tion as  pure  or  applied  science,  218, 
219;  not  duly  appreciated,  reason, 
221;  promise  of  future,  225. 

Physiology,  206;  and  hygiene,  346;  in 
the  grades,  347 ;  in  the  high  school 
curriculum,  347;  nature  of  the 
course,  357 ;  reasons  for  failure,  348; 
status  in  the  high  school,  350. 

Pictures  and  casts,  433,  439. 

Place  of  physics  in  high  school  curric- 
ulum, 1 80. 

Plato,  37,  39,  128. 

Playground,  353,  354,  359. 

Plexus  of  evils,  74. 

Poetry,  reading  of,  247,  248. 

Political  economy,  teaching  of,  300, 301 . 

Poor  teaching,  209. 

Practical  applications  of  physics,  144. 

Practical  arts,  pupils,  the  central  idea, 
429;  by  whom  taught,  430. 

Practical  courses,  428. 

Practical  value  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge, 216. 

Preparation,  for  teaching  English,  239; 
of-Latin  teachers,  275;  of  the  teacher 
of  modern  foreign  languages,  282; 
pupils',  124;  teachers',  118. 

Principals  and  instruction,  117. 

Pritchett,  H.  S.,  5. 

Private  study,  utilization  and  recogni- 
'tion  of,  330. 

Programme  of  studies,  2,  4;  meaning 
of,  in. 

Promotions,  92,  101. 

Prostitution,  364,  378. 

Psychology  in  high  school  curriculum, 
441;  (for  general  topics  see  also 
table  of  contents,  chap.  XXV). 

Puberty,  significance  of,  369,  375. 

Public  criticism,  ip,  15,  16. 

Public  speaking,  improvement  in  in- 
struction in,  249;  lack  of  text-books 
on,  249;  occasions  for,  250;  place 
in  training  for  the  professions,  245; 
practical  value  of,  245 ;  social  value 
of,  246;  teachers  of,  244,  254,  255; 
when  to  be  taught,  245. 


Public  support,  n,  12. 
Publication  in  English,  234,  236,  238. 
Pupils,  preparation,  124;   tests  of  at- 
tainment, 126. 
Pythagorean  proposition,  139. 


QUACKS,  warning  against,  378. 

Questions  in  English,  237. 

Quintilian,  46,  SI- 
READING,  227,  242;  of  poetry,  248. 

Reading  method  of  teaching  languages, 
278. 

Real-Gymnasien,  58. 

"Realien"  in  language  teaching,  279. 

Realschulen,  55,  57;  modern  lan- 
guages in,  279. 

Recreation  and  enjoyment,  435,  440. 

Reform  method  of  teaching  modern 
languages,  280. 

Reformation,  reaction  from,  54,  55- 

Regiomontanus,  130. 

Religion  and  morality,  relationship 
between,  335. 

Renaissance,  45;  secondary  education, 

49- 

Reporting,  topical,  237. 

Reproduction,  function  of,  361,  371. 

Requirements  in  English,  231. 

Rhetoric  as  adaptation,  232. 

Rhetoricals,  230,  249. 

Richards,  Mrs.  Ellen  H., "  Cost  of  Liv- 
ing," 431. 

Ritter-Akademien,  55. 

Robert  of  Chester,  130. 

Roman  mathematics,  129,  130;  sec- 
ondary education,  46. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  403. 

Round  Table,  238. 

Rousseau,  influence  on  secondary  edu- 
cation,  57. 

Rowe,  S.  H.,  33. 

Royce,  J.,  40. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.,  444. 

Rural  high  school,  101. 

Rural  school  teachers,  psychology  in 
their  training,  447-449. 

SACROBOSCO,  see  John  of  Halifax. 
Sadler,  M.  E.,  14,  336,  338. 
Salisbury,  221. 

Sanitation,  349,  357,  358,  359. 
Sauveur,  Lambert,  a  founder  of  the 

natural  method,  280. 
Scheme  of  treatment,  Introd.,  viii. 


554 


INDEX 


School  parties,  435,  440. 

School,  responsibility  of,  for  moral 
training,  336,  337;  a  socializing 
agency,  336,  339,  340. 

Schoolmen,  opposition  of,  306. 

Science,  elementary,  introductory,  380 
390. 

Scientific  character  of  physiography, 
213,  214. 

Seashore,  C.  E.,  457. 

Secondary  curriculum:  Academy, 
American  of  nineteenth  century,  63; 
academy,  early  American,  55,  56; 
English  public  school,  60;  French 
lycee,  61;  German,  59;  Greek,  46; 
high  school,  64;  mediasval,  47; 
Renaissance,  49;  Roman,  46;  sev- 
enteenth century,  53,  54;  sixteenth 
century,  50,  51. 

Secondary  education,  meaning  of,  76, 
77,  78. 

Self-abuse,  372,  378. 

Self-correction,  235. 

"Senior  high  school,"  86,  87. 

Sequence  in  science  courses,  204. 

Seven  liberal  arts,  47. 

Seventh  and  eighth  grades,  reorganiza- 
tion, 74,  75 ;  methods  of  organizing, 
82,  83;  curriculum  in,  97. 

Sex  pedagogy,  361 ;  constructive,  370; 
preventive,  375;  primary,  375. 

Sex  problem,  the,  361;  Church  and 
the,  362,  365;  Germany  and  the, 
367;  medicine  and  the,  362,  363, 
364;  methods  of  attacking,  368; 
parents  and  the,  361,  365,  367; 
schools  and  the,  365,  367,  368,  374, 
377;  society  and  the,  361,  362;  soci- 
ologic  aspects  of,  378,  380;  teachers 
and  the,  366,  370,  377;  university 
and  the,  365,  367,  368,  377. 

Sex  relationship,  normal,  370,  372, 
374,  380. 

Sheppard,  James  J.,  400. 

Shopping,  the  ethics  of,  431,  437. 

Sidis,  Boris,  34,  35. 

Sight-singing,  jfor  discipline,  325. 

Sight  translation,  in  Latin,  268. 

Six-year  high  school,  agitations  for, 
69,  73;  advantages  of,  100,  102; 
administration  of,  82  ff.;  aims  of, 
79;  courses  of  study  in,  09;  curric- 
ulum of,  95 ;  departmental  teach- 
ing in,  89  ff .,  100;  differentiation  in, 
80  ff.  (of  schools,  82,  97,  101;  of 
courses,  80,  81;  of  class  sections, 
*5>  97;  of  methods,  96);  equip- 


ment of,  88;  flexibility  in,  80; 
guiding  principles  respecting,  94; 
number  of  schools,  79  (note);  organ- 
ization of,  82  ff.;  subdivisions  of,  86. 

Slavery,  white,  361,  378. 

Snedden,  David,  15. 

Social  efficiency,  226,  233. 

Social  phase  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge, 216. 

Social  relations,  434,  440. 

Socrates,  37,  38. 

Spanish  or  German?  284. 

Special  teacher  of  public  speaking,  253. 

Specific  disciplines,  234. 

Spelling,  228. 

Spencer,  H.,  37,  40,  347. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  high  school  science 
course,  188. 

Standards  of  musical  preparation. 
322,  323- 

State  aid,  for  agriculture,  386. 

State  and  vocational  education,  414. 

State  school  system,  115. 

Stenography,  commercial  stand-point, 
402;  educational  stand-point,  403; 
importance  of,  402. 

Sterility,  cause  of,  363,  378. 

St.  Louis,  354. 

Sturm,  50,  144. 

Subject-matter,  aims  of,  no. 

Summary  of  geographical  characters, 
215- 

Superintendents  and  instruction,  117. 

Supervised  athletics,  98. 

Supervised  study,  98. 

Supervisors  and  class  teachers,  124. 

Supervisory  control  of  instruction, 
109,  115,  121. 

Supervisory  power,  tests  of,  123. 

Syllabus,  a,  437-440. 

Syphilis,  363,  377,  378. 

TEACHER  TRAINING  COURSES,  411. 

Teachers,  of  agriculture,  394;  of 
English,  236,  238,  239;  of  Latin, 
275;  of  physics,  181;  of  physiog- 
raphy, 224,  225;  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  350;  of  public  speaking 
(lack  of,  244;  resolutions  of  Illinois 
Teachers  of  English  concerning,  254 ; 
preparation  of,  255);  influence  of, 
333,339;  qualifications  of,  1 1 8;  se- 
lection of,  119;  temperament  and 
training  of,  330;  for  music  teaching, 
training  of,  209. 

Teaching  staff  of  school  to  aid  stu- 
dents, 32-7. 


INDEX 


555 


Technical  arts  high  schools,  420. 

Technical  schools  of  agriculture,  386. 

Teeth,  352. 

Tests,  pupils'  attainment,  126;  super- 
visory power,  122. 

Texas,  386. 

Textiles,  431,  437. 

Texts,  agricultural,  302;  commercial, 
404;  free,  121;  for  modern  lan- 
guage teaching,  280;  in  English, 
233,  236;  in  psychology,  454,  456; 
selection  of,  120;  old  and  new  con- 
trasted, 217. 

Theme  reading,  235. 

Themes,  musical,  320,  327. 

Theoretical  value  of  earth  science,  220, 
221. 

Thompson,  F.  D.,  253. 

Time  for  teaching,  205. 

Tone  thinking,  323. 

Topjcal  reports  in  English,  237. 

Training  of  teachers,  209;  of  physics 
teachers,  181. 

Transfer  of  training,  37-44. 

Transportation  of  pupils,  101. 

Trigonometry,  130,  137, 140, 141, 145. 

Trueblood,  Thos.  C.,  250. 

Tufts,  J.  H.,  341. 

Types  of  high  school  pupils,  79. 

ULTIMATE  CONCEPTS  IN  PHYSICS,  148. 
Unison  singing,  value  of,  324. 
Unit,  of  agriculture,  388;  of  physics, 
152,  156,  159. 

VALUE,  of  biology,  198;  of  Latin,  258; 

pedagogical,  of  physics,   149,  165; 

practical  and  moral,  of  physics,  149. 
Varicocele,  379. 
Variety  in  English  work,  234. 
Vice,  effects  of  sexual,  363,  364,  376, 

37». 


Victor,  founder  of  reform  method,  280. 

Virginia,  353,  386. 

Virtue,  positive,  376. 

Vittorino  da  Feltre,  49,  51. 

Vocational  courses,  82. 

Vocational  demands  on  English,  226, 

231,  239- 

Vocational  guidance,  425. 
Vocational  training,  409. 
Voice  training,  248 

WALLS,  treatment  of,  433,  439. 

Walter,  H.  E.,  206;  Max,  279. 

Wanamaker,  John,  400. 

Wardrobe,  the,  431,  437. 

Washington  Irving  High  School,  422. 

Washington  University  Manual  Train- 
ing School,  411. 

What  to  avoid,  433,  439. 

Whitney,  W.,  205. 

Will,  the  training  of,  in  public  speak- 
ing, 248. 

Wilson,  E.  B.,  198. 

Wisconsin,  386. 

Wisconsin  law  regarding  vocational 
education,  416. 

Witmer,  457. 

Wohler,  visit  of,  to  Berzelius,  193. 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Un- 
ion, 347,  348. 

Wood,  T.  D.,  349. 

Worcester  Trade  School,  416. 

Work,  social,  opportunities  for,  435, 
440. 

Wundt  and  first  psychological  labora- 
tory, 443. 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIA- 
TION, 353. 

ZOOLOGY  COURSES,  206. 


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